СОДЕРЖАНИЕ

Способы письма в алфавите языка хинди

Глава I: Алфавит
Глава II: Произношение: Гласные.
Глава III: Произношение: Согласные ....
Глава IV: Способы письма: Гласные ...
Глава V: Способы письма: Согласные ....
Глава VI: Анусвара и назализация ....
Глава VII: Акцент ....
Глава VIII: Сандхи и Благозвучие ....

ИМЕНА, МЕСТОИМЕНИЯ И ПРИЛАГАТЕЛЬНЫЕ

Глава IX : Введение ....
Глава X: Имена ....
Глава XI: Числительные ....
Глава XII: Падежи ....
Глава XIV: Падежи – Прямая форма ....
Глава XV: Падежи – Косвенная форма ....
Глава XVI: Местоимения ....
Глава XVII: Местоимения: Косвенная форма ....
Глава XVIII: Местоимения: Разное ....
Глава XIX: Прилагательные ....
Глава XX: Числительные ....

ГЛАГОЛЫ

Глава XXI : Глаголы: Введение ....
Глава XXII; Повелительное наклонение....
Глава XXIII: Настоящее время изъявительного наклонения ....
Глава XXIV: Прошедшее время изъявительного наклонения....
Глава XXV: Будущее время изъявительного наклонения ...
Глава XXVI: Настоящее совершенного вида ....
Глава XXVII: Настоящее обыкновенного вида ....
Глава XXVIII: Прошедшее совершенного вида ....
Глава XXIX: Сослагательное наклонение ....
Глава XXX: Инфинитив ....
Глава XXXI: Причастия и абсолютив ....
Глава XXXII: Побуждающие глаголы....
Глава XXXIII: Сложные глаголы ....
Глава XXXIV: Страдательный залог и безличное наклонение ....

НАРЕЧИЯ, ПОСЛЕЛОГИ, СОЮЗЫ
И МЕЖДОМЕТИЯ

Глава XXXV : Наречия ....
ГлаваXXXVI: Послелоги ....
Глава XXXVII: Союзы....
Глава XXXVIII: Междометия....

СИНТАКСИС

ГлаваXXXIX : Разное....
Глава XXXX: Согласование: Залог и Конструкции ....
Глава XXXXI: Порядок слов ....

ПРИЛОЖЕНИЕ

Приложение I : Префиксы и суффиксы ....
Приложение II Род ....
Приложение III: Сложные слова....
Приложение IV: Разное ....
Приложение V: Стандартизированный шрифт деванагари ..
Приложение VI: Схема ± : ® .... ..
Приложение VII: Схема ±
Приложение VIII: Стандартизация произношения хинди

Глава I: Алфавит

Язык хинди, как и многие другие северно-индийские языки вроде маратхи и непали, использует санскритское письмо Нагари (или Деванагари), которое испокон веков применяется в санкритской литературе по всей Индии.

Недавно, это письмо было стандартизировано Центральным управлением языка хинди, Министерством просвещения и обслуживания молодежи в целях выработки единообразия в письменной форме и улучшения формы некоторых из его букв. Этот «стандартизированный деванагари» приведен в Приложении V.

Алфавит состоит из следующих 11 гласных и 35 согласных:

Гласные:

а, а-а, и, и-и, у-у, ¤ у-у, ры,
¦ э, ¦ ай, о, ау.

Примечание: ‘ ’ (анусвара) и ‘:’ (висарга) часто включаются в список гласных (и обычно пишутся как и :). Но, в языке хинди они – согласные.

Знак ‘ ’ (анусвара), помещенный над гласной, может представлять любую из согласных , , , и (которые произносятся после гласного). Знак ‘:’ (висарга) , помещенный после гласной, представляет .

Гласная в языке хинди появляется только в словах, заимствованных из санскрита.

Согласные

ка, ® кха, ± га, гха, нга,
µ чя, ¶ чха, джа, » джха, ня,
Та, Тха, Да, Дха, На,
та, тха, да, дха, на,
па, пха, ба, бха, ма,
йа, ра, ля, ва,
шя, ша, са, ха, Ра, Рха.

Примечание: (1) ‘a’ присущ каждому алфавитному знаку согласной.

Иными словами, алфавитные буквы согласных языка хинди означают не только согласные звуки. Они являются обозначениями слогов, состоящих из соответствующего согласного + . Таким образом, – это не просто ‘к’, а k+a; – не просто ‘ль’, а l+a. Поэтому именуется «присущим согласной букве».

(2) появляется в хинди только в словах, заимствованных из санскрита.
(3) , , , и никогда не встречаются в начале слова; а и никогда не употребляются самостоятельно, а только в сочетании с последующейц согласной.

Знак (чандра-бинду ), помещаемый над гласной (, и т.д.) указывает назализацию гласной, которая именуется носовой (анунасика ).

Так как анусваре неизменно предшествует гласная, а ее знак близко напоминает знак назализации (анунасику ), и оба знака помещаются над гласным, да к тому же звуки, представленные ими, схожи, анусвара на письме часто путается с чандрабинду (µ) и заменяется ею. Таким образом, . (hai) «они есть» (почти всегда) пишется как (hain), а (ханс) «смех» часто спутывается с (ханса) «гусь, лебедь». Однако не слишком трудно и даже полезно различить их. Анусвара следует за гласным и имеет в языке хинди значение , , , , or . – это либо (как в ± «браслет»), или (как в «развлечение»), или (как в «яйцо»), или (как в «обезьяна»), или (как в «длинный»). Назализация, напротив, является модификацией произношения самого гласного: = носовой , = + (а не + + как «был бы»), = + ¦ (а не + ¦ + или ).

Знак ‘ ’ (анусвара) над гласной может представлять любую из согласных , , , и (которые произносятся после гласной).

(a) ‘ ’ (анусвара), помещенная над гласной или согласной + гласная, может представлять, как уже было отмечено [(2) (d)], любой из пяти носовых звуков (`, , , and ), сочетающийся со следующей согласной.

(b) Носовые, как правило, сочетаются только с согласными их собственного класса (варга ), или с другим носовым, или с , , , , , , и .

(Сочетания наподобие + или +, например, никогда не встречаются в хинди).

Обычными являются следующие сочетания:
+ (®, ±, , , );
+µ (¶, , », );
+ (, , , , , , , );
+ (, , , , , , , ,, );
+ (, , , , , , , , , , , , ).

(c) Во всех словах, носовые могут быть заменены анусварой , если они сопровождаются первыми четырьмя буквами их собственного разряда. Таким образом, ® «опахало» может писаться как ®, ± «щетка, метла» – как ±, «лапа» – как , «слепой» – как , «яйцо» – как , «Бомбей» – как и т. д. Исключение: «младенец» (а не ). Также не возможно написание , , и т. д.

(d) Тем не менее, перед или должно быть анусварой. «флейта» должно писаться , а «желание, цель» должно писаться .

(e) на конце слова и перед согласной превращается в анусвару. + ± = ± «союз, соединение, сочетание, шанс», += «круговерть бытия, мир», + = «сокрушение, разрушение, убийство».

Знак ‘:’ (висарга), идущий за гласной, представляет звук ‘х’ (). Он появляется исключительно в словах санскритского происхождения (¶:, ¶: – исключения) после гласной: : (атах – «отсюда, поэтому»), : (пхалатах – «следовательно»).

Некоторые арабские, персидские и английские согласные, обнаруживаемые в заимствованиях из этих языков, обозначаются следующими буквами с точкой – «, ®, , . Звуки «, ®, , и встречаются только в правильном произношении образованных людей, знающих арабский, персидский, турецкий и английский языки. В обычной речи они заменяются на , ®, ±, и .

обозначает о в английских словах наподобие office (), college () и др.

Глава 2

Вводное замечание

Все звуки человеческой речи производятся на выдохе (или вдохе), когда воздух проходит через гортань и впадины рта и носа. Гортань – это полость в горле (расположенная сразу за «Адамовым яблоком»), в которой имеются две голосовые связки. Последние напоминают две губы, натянутые горизонтально. Они могут расходиться в стороны, свободно пропуская воздух, который производит глухой звук, или соприкасаться и вибрировать, производя звонкий звук.

При произношении согласных во рту создается полная или частичная преграда с помощью губ, (верхних) зубов, неба и языка. Язык может соприкасаться с верхними зубами, альвеолами (бугорками над ними) или небом и, таким образом, формировать различные по характеру звуки.

Гласные формируются, главным образом, с помощью гортани. Вибрация голосовых связок производит «голос», а различные видоизменения «формы воздушного коридора выше гортани» обусловливают характер гласных. Этот проход назвают резонансной полостью. Формой воздушного коридора выше гортани и, следовательно, качеством гласного управляют, в основном, с помощью положения губ (D. Jones).

Два гласных, соединяясь в один слог, формируют дифтонг.

3. (1) (a) – краткий, полуоткрытый, средний гласный.

(аб – «теперь»), ± (агар – «если»).

(a) – долгий, открытый гласный заднего ряда.

± (а-аг ) «огонь», (a-аp ) «Вы» (почтительное).

(и ) - краткий, закрытый, передний гласный.

(идхар ) «сюда», (иксатх ) «шестьдесят один».

(и-и ) – долгий, закрытый, передний гласный.

(и-иш ) «Бог», ® (и-икх ) «сахарных тростник».

(u) – краткий, закрытый, заднего ряда, округленный гласный.

(удхар ) туда. (удай ) «восход».

¤ (у-у ) долгий, закрытый, заднего ряда, округленный гласный.

¤ (у-упар ) «вверх, вверху», ¤ (у-ун ) «шерсть».

(ры) краткий и произносится как ri в английском слове rip:
(rn) «долг». См. (1). В хинди не гласный звук, а просто сочетание согласного р+и (в некоторых южно-индийских языках ему соответствует р+у). Он включается в состав гласных, потому что в санскрите он имел значение истинного гласного.

¦ (э) – долгий, полузакрытый, передний гласный.

¦ (эк) «один».
¦ (ай) – долгий, полуоткрытый, передний гласный.

¦ (айб ) «дефект, недостаток», ¦ (айнак ) «очки».

(o) – долгий, полузакрытый, гласный заднего ряда.

(ос) «роса», ! (ох ) «о!»

(ау) – долгий, полуоткрытый гласный заднего ряда.

(аурат ) «женщина», (аур ) «и, больше».

(2) -, -¤, а так же - являются парами кратких и долгих гласных.

(3) ¦ и в хинди и санскритских словах обычно являются долгими гласными. Однако, в «ученом» произношении санскритских слов, заимствованных в язык хинди, или перед полугласными ( майя «мать») и ( каува «ворона») ¦ и превращаются в отчетливые дифтонги и произносятся как (ай ) и (ау ) соответственно.

(4) Любой гласный, краткий или долгий, может гнусавиться (произноситься через нос): aн , a -ан , ¦ эн , он :

® (анкх ) «глаз», (и-инт ) «кирпич», ¤ (у-унт ) «верблюд», (онТх ) «губы».

Глава III

Первые двадцать пять согласных, начиная с и по , разделены на пять разрядов.

® ± мягкие палатальные (Ka-varga т.е. ка -разряд)
µ ¶ » палатальные (ча - варга , т.е. ча -разряд)
церебральные или ретрофлексные
(Та -варга , т.е. Та -разряд)
дентальные или альвеолярные (та -варга , т.е. та -разряд).
лабьяльные или губные (па-варга или па -разряд).

(b) В первой колонке расположены глухие, во второй – глухие-придыхательные, в третьей – звонкие, в четвертой – звонкие-придыхательные, а в пятой – соответствующие своему разряду носовые.

(k): (kab) «когда?»; (kamal) «лотус».

® (kh): ®± «птица»; ® (khatmal) «ошибка».

± (g): ± (garam) `горячий`; ± (gardan) «шея».

(gh): (ghar) «дом».

(n): ± (ang) «тело»; ± (sang) «союз, общество».

Примечание: согласные с придыханием должны ясно отличаться от непридыхательных звуков.

Палатальные звуки образуются при прикосновении спинки языка с твердым небом.

µ (c): µ (cat-pat) «быстро»; µ (capat) «удар».

¶ (ch): ¶ (chat) «крыша, потолок»; ¶ (chal) «обман, мошенничество».

(j): (jab) «когда»; (jay) «победа».

» (jh): » (jhat) «быстро, сразу»; » (jhalak) `jhalak «проблеск, сияние».

(n): µ (panc) «пять»; (µ) (manc) «сцена, платформа.

Церебральные или ретрофлексные звуки образуются соприкосновением нижней стороны кончика языка, загнутого назад к небу. Условимся обозначать эти звуки в транскрипции заглавными буквами.

(t): (Tan) «тонна»; (tamtam) «тандем».

(th): ± (Thag) «головорез, обманщик».

(d): (Dar) «страх»; ± (dag) «нога, шаг».

(dh): (Dhab) «путь, манера».

(n): [Rin] «долг», ± (gan) «группа». ( встречается только в словах, заимствованных из санскрита, и даже в них никогда в начале слова).

Примечание: Церебральные – это особые индийские звуки, не имеющие соответствия в европейских языках.

Дентальные образуются касанием кончика языка верхних зубов, а не альвеол (за исключением ), как в английском языке.

(t): (tab) «тогда»; (tat) «берег».

(th): (than) «сосок».

(d): (daman) «подавление, контроль»; (das) «десять».

(dh): (dhan) «деньги, богатство»; (dhar) «туловище, тело».

(n): ± (nagar) «город»; (namak) «соль».

Лабьяльные или губные.

(p): (pakar); µ (pacpan) «пятьдесят пять».

(ph): (phal) «плод»; , (phan) «капюшон змеи».

(b) (button); ± (bargad) «баньян».

(bh): (bhay) «страх»; (bhavan) «дом».

(m): ± (magar) «крокодил»; (man) «ум».

(y) произносится как русское «й»: (yah) «этоб он» (yash) «слава, известность».

(к) произносится как русское «р»: (rais) «богатый (человек); э (ras) «роса, сок, вкус».

(l) произносится как русское «ль»: µ (lacak), «эластичность»; (lahar) «волна».

(v) произносится как русское «в» или «у»: (van), «лес»; µ (vacan) «слово, речь, высказывание».

Фрикативные или шипящие (, и )

(sh) произносится как русское «шь»: (шакар ) «сахар»; (shahar) «город».

(SH) произносится как русское «ш» твердое. Условимся обозначать в транскрипции мягкое «ш» маленькой буквой, а твердое ­– заглавной. Встречается в санскритских заимствованиях. В хинди его произношение не отличается от : (ШаТ ) «шесть».

(s): (sab) «все»; » (samajh) «понимание».

(h) произносится как русское «х»: (ham) «мы»; (hal) «плуг».

(1) (R) и (Rh) являются ретрофлексными и звонкими.

(2) (jaR) «корень», (baR) «баньян», ± (gaRh) «крепость», (paRh) «читай!».

(3) и никогда не появляются в начале слова.

(4) Не следует их смешивать с ретрофлексными, хотя в произношении они часто не различимы (Д) and (Дх).

(5) Эти звуки характерны только для хинди. Они не встречаются в санскрите или европейских языках.

Знак придыхания в виде двоеточия на конце слова : (h) именуется «висаргой». Встречается почти исключительно в санскритских словах (¶:, ¶: – исключения) после гласной: : (atah) «поэтому», : (phalatah) «следовательно».

Согласная « (q) встречается в заимствованиях из арабского, персидского и турецкого. Это – глухой гортанный «к»: « (qad) «размер, рост», (qatai) «вполне , всеце ло, соверше нно».

® (х), (г-глухое), (з) и (ф) – фрикативные как и , , и . Они появляются только в заимствованиях из арабского и персидского, последние две характерны также для заимствований из английского. ® и – глухие, и – звонкие: ® (xabar) «новость», (gam) «печаль, сожаление». (z) – звонкое . (zahar) «яд». (ф) отлично от (пх) и является глухим : (faqat) «только, единственно», (fatah) «победа».

Звуки «, ®, , и обычно заменяются на , ®, ±, и ..

Некоторые сочетания согласных, такие как , и могут напоминать придыхательные , и , хотя таковыми не являются: (u-nhen) «им», (tu-mha-ra) «ваш», (ku-lha-Ri) «топор», «маленький».

ГЛАВА IV

В том случае, когда нужно показать, что согласная буква произносится без присущей ей «а», под ней ставится знак вроде запятой, называемый Халь (или Халанта )
k = , = , d = и т. д. На практике этот знак частенько опускается.

Отметим несколько правил относительно присущего , которые харатерны для разговорного хинди:

(a) Присущий на конце слов не произносится: (kama) «работа» произносится как (kam), (kamala) «лотос» – как (kamal), (mana) «ум» – как (man), (arama) «отдых» – как (aram).

Присущее также не произносится в середине трех- и более сложных слов, оказываясь между двумя произносимыми:

µ (ca-la-ta) «идущий» – как µ (cal-ta);
(ma-ta-la-ba) «цель, смысл, значение» – как (mat-lab).

(nam) «имя», (rat) «ночь», (kitab) «книга», (bharna) «наполнять», ® (sukhna) «сушить», (kartab) «действие, поступок», (admi) «человек», µ (bachpan) «детство», ®- (khan-pan) «еда и питье», «перед, встреча лицом к лицу», (saman) «вещи, багаж».

Утрата произношения конечного отразилась в нескольких случаях на письме:, и т. д.

+ «теперь же» (три слога) = + (ab-hi– два слога) = (abhi).

«ты сам же» из + (произносимого + ).

Все местоимения в единственном и множественном числе в прямом или косвенном падеже могут сочетать с усилительной частицей :
«я сам же», «ты же»,
«Вы сами же», «кто-нибудь же, любой же»,
¶ «что-нибудь же».

Большинство этих сложных слов подвержены правил сочетания звуков (сандхи ) [50 (c) and 9 (d)]:

» + = », » + = », + = ,

+ = (), + = , + = ,
+ = , + = , + = ,
+ = , + = , + = ,

+ = , + = ().

Но в грамотном произношении санскритских слов присущее «а» не опускается, особенно в словах, заканчивающихся на или , напр., (ta-na-ya) «сын», (ma-na-va) «человек», или на сочетание согласных: (prarambha) «начало», (mantra) «стих-заклинание», (sarva) «все», (dhanya) «богатый, счастливый»».

(e) В стихах произношение присущего зависит от ритма и рифмы:

– divas ka avasan samip tha;
® ® – akh ka asu Dhalak-ta dehk kar.

Вследствие опускания конечного в разговорном хинди конечная произносимая согласная предыдущего слова сливается по законам благозвучия с первой согласной следующего слова: (dak) «почта» + (ghar) «дом», пишущиеся как «почтовое отделение», произносятся как ± (dagghar) (ср. 49-b-1);

¦ (ek) «один» + ± (gari) «повозка» произносится как ¦±± (eggari) (49-b-1);

(adh) «половина» + (ser) «сэр, ме ра ве са» (ок. 1 кг ) или «ме ра жи дкости» (ок. 1 л ) произносятся как (asser) «полу-сэр» (фунт).

+ = «брахман или священник», (cf 49-b-5),

µ + = «прибыть» (cf 49-b-1),

+ = «убит»,

+ = «принеси сюда».

Краткое после согласных не пишется вовсе (впрочем, можно считать, что оно обозначено присущей большинству согласных вертикальной чертой). Другие гласные после согласных заменяются особыми знаками (именуемыми матра , «мера»). Исходно это были порядковые числительные «первый» и «второй», которыми обозначались краткий и долгий гласные. Эти «меры» (долготы) пишутся слева и справа, сверху и снизу согласной. Например, k + i ( + ) пишется , k + u ( + ) пишется как .

Матры имеют следующий вид и значение:

= , = , = , = , ¤ =

= , ¦ = , ¦ = , = , = .

(), (), () и () пишутся после согласной, () – перед, (), (¤) и () – под, а (¦) и (¦) – над:

+ =

+ =
+ =

+ =

+ ¦ =
+ ¦ =
+ =

+ ¤ =

(исключение: + = , + ¤ = )

+ =
+ = .

В носовых (anunasika) знак Candra-bindu помещается над слогом: , , , , но если слог содержит вверху матру , то вместо пишется только точка справа от матры : , , , , , .

(1) Висарга всегда помещается после слога на гласную: :® (duhkh) «боль, страдание», : (nihsim) «безграничный».

(b) Анусвара ` ` помещается над гласной () или открытым слогом, после которого она произносится ().

ГЛАВА V

Две или более согласных, произносимых слитно (напр., + = (kka), + = (kya) «что?»), на письме образуют особые сочетания, именуемые лигатурами.

Знак Hal в примерах выше () используется только на конце санскритских слов ( (mahan) «великий»). Сливаясь, согласные (чаще предшествующие) теряют часть своего алфавитного начертания: перед другими согласными пишется как: © (= ); но в сочетании + = последующая , пишущаяся под , утрачивает коротенькую вертикальную черточку. В сочетании + = урезаются обе согласные.

(a) Большинство предшествующих согласных в лигатуре теряют свою вертикальную черту, обозначающую присущее слоговое «а»:

± + = ±, µ + ¶ = µ¶,

+ = , + µ = µ.

(b) Некоторые утрачивают только вертикальную получерту: + = ©, + = .

(c) Те согласные, которые не имеют вертикальной черты (, ¶, , , , , и ), не изменяются и и могут писаться со знаком отмены «а»: + = ,

+ = и т.д.

Часто такие закругленные согласные пишутся последовательно, но нередко одна над другой (при этом вертикальная черта может быть опущена у последующей-нижней согласной): + =, + = , + = , + =, + = , + = , + = .

Исключение: перед согласной пишется над ней:

+ ± = ±, + µ = µ, + = .

Когда же следует за согласной, имеющей вертикальную черту, она пишется слева как наклонная черта:

+ = , + = , + = .

После , , , , ¶ она пишется снизу как крышечка: + =, + = .

+ = (kSha).

+ = (tra).

+ = (джня , (jna) – правильное санскритское произношение), обычно в хинди звучит как ± (gyan) или ± (gya).

Иногда последние три лигатуры включаеются в алфавит.

Произношение анусвары ( ) зависит от последующей согласной и может принимать значения носового разных разрядов: , , , , :

= «гребешок», µ = µ «золото» и т.д.

и в лигатурах после согласной иногда меняют свои очертания, но остаются вполне узнаваемыми:

+ = , + = , + = ©, + = ©,

+ = , + = (часто ).

+ = , + = , + = .

+ = или ,

+ = или ,

+ = © или ©,

+ = или ,

+ = © или ©,

+ = © или ©,

+ = © или ©,

+ = © или ©,

+ = ,

+ = или ,

+ µ = µ или µ,

µ + µ = µµ или µµ,

+ = или ,

+ µ = µ или µ.

(a) Сочетания лигатур с матрами гласных:

+ + = ,

+ + = ,

+ + = ,

+ + = © (kyon) «почему».

+ + = ,

+ + = © или ©,

+ + = ,

+ + = ,

+ + = ,

+ + + = и т.д.

ГЛАВА VI

(А) Носовые сочетаются с согласными своего разряда (варга ), с другими носовыми или с , , , , , , и .

(В хинди не может быть сочетаний вроде + или
+ ).

Обычными сочетаниями являются следующие:
+ (®, ±, , , );
+ µ (¶, , », );
+ (, , , , , , );
+ (, , , , , , , ,, );
+ (, , , , , , , , , , , , ).

(b) в конце слова перед согласной превращается в анусвару: + ± = ± «сочетание, возможность», + = «мир», + = «убийство, разрушение».

Анусвара произносится

как перед , ®, ±, :

® (pankha) «опахало», ± (tang) «узкий», почти как перед : современное произношение (sinha) «лев» – (singha) или (sinha);

как перед , , , и : µ (campa) «цветок», (nambar) «номер», (samvat) «эра, год»;

почти как перед : (sanyam) «самоконтроль», ± (sanyog) «соединение, возможность»;

как перед остальными согласными: (sant) «святой», (bandar) «обезъяна», (anda) «яйцо», µ (sancay) «собрание, коллекция», (panja) «лапа», (sansar) «мир», (sanraksak) «защитник, охранник», ± (sanlagn) «приложенный», (sanshay) «сомнение».

Примечание: анусвара не появляется перед , и .

За исключением заимствованных слов анусвара не встречается после долгих гласных: ® «глаз», «кирпич», ¤ «верблюд», «да», ± «каноэ», «леопард», «буйвол», µ «пугаться» содержат анунасику (носовые гласные). В некоторых случаях даже исконная (санскритская) анусвара заменяется на анунаику ( «бронза» восходит к санскритскому ).

Долгие гласные в хинди часто пишутся с анусварой, но произносятся как назализованные (анунасика): = «леопард» (tEdua, а не tendua); и даже иногда краткие носовые гласные пишутся с анусварой: вместо «темнота», ± вместо ± «rustic», ¶ вместо ¶ «рассеиваться» и т.д.

ГЛАВА VII

Акцент – выделение слога более высоким тоном или напряжением (силой выдоха, громкостью).

В современных европейских языках, таких как английский, русский и др., акцент представлен напряжением. Ведийский санскрит, древнегреческий и латынь имели музыкальное тоновое ударение. Каждый слог содержит только один гласный, а каждый согласный произносится с предшествущей или последующей гласной. Несколько согласных могут «принадлежать» одному и тому же самому гласному.

В языке хинди разделение слова на слоги подчиняется слудующим правилам.

Одна или несколько согласных в начале слова принадлежат следующему гласному: (ja-na) «идти», ± (prani) «существо, живое существо», (su-na) «услышал».

Согласная в конце слова «принадлежит» предшествующей гласной (ka-mal) «лотос» (присущий букве звук не произносится).

Вследствие утраты конечного в разговорном языке последняя согласная сцепляется (сандхи) с первой согласной следующего слова. Таким образом, (dak) «почта» + (ghar) «дом» пишутся как «почта» и произносятся как ± (dagghar) (сравни 49-b-1); ¦ (ek) «один + ± (gari) «вагон» произносятся как ¦±± (eggari) (49-b-1), (adh) «половина» + (ser) произносятся как (asser) (один фунт веса). Точно так же + = «брахман или священник» (сравни 49-b-5), µ + = , «достичь, прибыть», (сравни 49-b-1), + = («убит»), + = «принеси сюда».

Согласный внутри слова обычно принадлежит следующей гласной: (sa-ve-ra) «утро», (na-di) «река». Первая из нескольких согласных внутри слова принадлежит предыдущей гласной, а остальные – следующей: (man-tri) «министр, секретарь», µ (can-dra-ma) «луна», (an-tya) «последний, заключительный», (ak-SHa-ra) (not a-kSHa-ra) «слог», (ad-vi-ti-ya) (not a-dvi-ti-ya) «уникальный, несравненный». , и – исключения из вышеприведенного правила. Фактически, их нужно рассматривать скорее как придыхательные формы , и , чем как лигатуры. Таким образом, (u-nhe) (u-nhe) «к ним», (tu-mha-ra) «ваш, ваши», (ku-lha-ri) «топор». Однако, – nan-ha («маленький, крошечный»).

Слог, заканчивающийся на согласный, называют закрытым, а заканчивающийся на гласный –открытым. Слог является долгим, если он содержит долгую гласную или является закрытым. Слог, заканчивающийся краткой гласной, является кратким.

В хинди имеется силовое ударение, хотя оно не является столь же отчетливым, как, например, в европейских языках.

Главные правила расстановки ударений следующие:

Как правило, акцентируется только один слог.

В словах из двух или более слогов акцентируется долгий.

± (ga-yA ) «пошел или ушедший», µ (ci-t A ) «костер», (sA -dhu) «святой, святой», (In -du) «луна», (a-nu-bha-vI ) «опытный», (a-nu-me -ya) «выводимый (логически)», (a-n A -may) «здоровье», (dAn -da-vi-dhi) «уголовное право» и т.д.

Если слово содержит больше одного долгого слога, предпоследний, если долгий, акцентируется:

() (jA -nA), «идти», (Ad -mI) «человек», ® (lIkh -na) «писать», (kAr -tA) «деятель», (bAn -dAr) «обезьяна», (In -drA-NI) «жена Индра», (ka-rA-nA) «заставить сделать», (ki-rA-yA) «арендная плата или плата за проезд», ± (gu-ru-A-nI) «жена наставника», ±± (jag-ma-gA-nA), «заставить искриться, блестеть», µ (ka-cAh-rI) «суд».

Последний слог никогда не акцентируется, если, конечно, это не единственный длинный слог в слове.

µ (cAn-dra-mA) «луна», ± (sAn-ga-ti) «компания», (pa-vi-tra-tA) «чистота, неприкосновенность», µ® (cAn-dra-mukhI) «луноликая», (sAr-wa-ja-nik) «общественный».

В словах, состоящих только из кратких слогов, акцентируется предпоследний: (ma-ti) «мнение, понимание, смысл», (su-ma-ti) «хорошее понимание, здравый смысл», (a-vidit) «неизвестный».

В слове (mAt-lAb) «цель, значение, смысл» два долгих слога (а не четыре кратких), и ударение падает на первый.

Присущий никогда не опускается в первом слоге слова и в положениях, когда перед или после него имеется другой опущенный :

µ (саl-ta) «движущийся»;

(kamal) «лотос»,

(nAm) «имя, название», (rAt) «ночь», (kitAb) «книга», (bharnA) «наполнять», ® (sukhnA) «сушить», (kartab) «дело, поступок», (AdmI) «человек», µ (bachpan) «детство», ®- (khAn-pAn) «пища и напиток», (sAmnA) «встреча с глазу на глаз», (sAmAn) «материал, багаж».

ГЛАВА VIII

«Сандхи» (букв. «соединение звуков)» означает все изменения звуков, возникающие при их соединении для простоты произношения.

В словах, заимствованных из санскрита, естественно, действуют правила санскритского сандхи.

Самые важные из них даются ниже:

VOWELS:-

+ , + , + or + = :
+ = , «заход солнца».
+ = «свехъестество, всевышнее начало, бог».
+ = «постижение науки, изучение».
+ = «училище, школа».
+ , + , + or + = :
+ = «желаемый».
+ = «осмотр, экзамен».
+ = «владыка земли, царь».
+ = «владыка ночи, месяц».

+ , + ¤, ¤ + или ¤ + ¤ = ¤:
+ © = © «хорошее изречение».
+ ¤ = «многосильный».
+ , + , + или + = ¦:
+ µ¶ = µ¶ «благожелатель».
+ = «великий Индра».
+ = «повелитель людей, царь».
+ = «великий господь, Шива»`.
+ , + , + ¤, + ¤ = :
+ = «всеобщее благо».
+ = «большой праздник».
+ ¤ = «новобрачная».
+ ¤ = «высокая волна».
+ или + = :
+ = «Семь Мудрецов», ныне созвездие Большой Медведицы.
+ = «великий мудрец».
+ ¦, + ¦, + ¦ или + ¦ = ¦:
+ ¦ = «желание сына».
+ ¦© = © «единодушие».
+ ¦ = «всегда же».
+ ¦ = «великое могущество, богатство».
+ , + , + или + = :
+ = «нижняя губа».
+ = «наилучшее лекарство».
+ = «великосильный, великолепный».
+ © = © «большое рвение, стремление».

или перед любой другой гласной кроме или изменяется в :

+ = «процветание».
+ = «и так далее».
+ ¦ = «каждый».
+ = «речная вода».

или ¤ перед любой гласной кроме или ¤
изменяется на :
+ ± = ± «добро пожаловать».
+ ± = ± «прибытие невесты».
перед любой гласной кроме изменяется на :

+ = «приказ отца».

+ = «исполнительница».
+ = (но не внутри слова);

Примечание: эли зия после ¦ и обычно обозначается знаком именуемым в санскрите аваграха (±):

+ = ; + = .

СОГЛАСНЫЕ:

, µ, и перед гласной или или звонкой согласной кроме носовой изменяется в ±, , и соответственно:

+ = ± «бог речи».
+ ± = ±± «слон стороны света».
+ = «Шестилик, бог Сканда».
+ = «рожденный в воде, лотус».

перед гласной или ±, , , , , , , или итзменяется в :

± + = ± «господь мира».
+ ± = ± «святой учитель».
+ = «открытие, иногюрация».
+ = «цитата».
+ = «того же вида, подобный».

(3) перед µ или ¶ изменяется в µ :
+ µ = µµ «добропорядочный».
+ ¶ = µ¶ «разрушение, отсечение».
(4) + = µ¶:

+ = µ¶ «выдох».
+ = :
+ = «добрый человек».
+ = :
+ = «поглащенный».
+ = «восхищение, наслаждение».

, , и , а также ±, , и перед носовой согласной изменяются в , , и соответственно:

+ = «словестность, литература».
+ ® = ® «Шестилик, Сканда».
± + = ± «господь мира, Вишну, Шива».
+ = :
+ = «гордый, заносчивый».

перед или звонкой согласной изменяется в :

+ = + = :

ГЛАСНЫЕ:

перед или перед звонкой согласной изменяется в :

+ = : «молочный напиток».
+ = : «падение вниз».
+ = : «частичка пыли, пылинка».
+ ® = :® «душевная печаль».
+ = : «плод покаяния».
перед µ или ¶ изменяется в :
+ µ = µ «занятие подвижничеством, подвижничество».
+ ¶ = µ «бесхитростный».
+ µ = µ «трудновыполнимый».

после гласной кроме и и перед гласной или звонкой согласной изменяется в :

+ = «жизневедение, наука долголетия, медицина».

после гласной кроме and и перед , ®, или , изменяется в :

+ = «бесстрастный».
+ = «бесплодный».
+ = «беспристрастный».

В хинди, помимо этого, есть свои правила сандхи. Они, однако, не настолько четкие и их меньше, чем в санскрите. Кроме того, большая их часть работает только в разговорном языке и не отражается в письменной форме. Они пока должным образом не исследованы и не описаны.

Некоторые из наиболее важных правил сандхи, действующие и в разговорном и письменном языке хинди, приведены ниже:

Внутри слова и перед и (или и ) изменяются в :

+ (знак мн. ч. ж. р. Существительных на -, или : – («дата – даты»), – («девочка – девочки»), – («старуха – старухи»).
+ = «реки».
+ = «хлебцы».
© + (суфф. мн. ч. звательного падежа) = © «О силы могущества!»
+ = «О девочки!»
+ = «О братья!»
Подобным же образом, , и т.д.

Примечание: Это правило сандхи отражает принцип произношения, который обусловливает появление между и любой другой гласной призвука «й» (), отражающегося и на письме. Призвук (у или в) , появляющийся между и другой гласной, в письме обчно не отражается.

Долгое «у-у» (¤) перед ¦ (¦) или () становится кратким:

+ ¦ (суфф. мн. ч.) = ¦ «жены».
+ (суфф. мн. ч. звательного п.) = «О жены!».

«теперь», «тогда», «когда», «когда» (относительное местоим.) и «все» перед усилительной частицей сливаются в одно слово, а становится придыхательной :

+ = «прямо сейчас».
+ = «как раз тогда».
+ = «все до одного».

Утрата присущего в вышеприведенных примерах отразилась и на письме.

Еще один пример «ты сам, вы сами» из + , произносимого как + .

С наречиями и частица пишется раздельно: «как раз сюда», «как раз туда».

Частица после , , и утрачивает , а сливается с :

+ = «этот самый».
+ = «тот самый».
+ = «какой же».
+ = «именно тот, который».

Все местоимения, ед. или мн. ч. прямого или косвенного падежей могут быть объединены с усилительной частицей :
«я сам», «ты сам»,
«Вы сами», «любой же»,
¶ «что бы то ни было, все, что угодно».

Значительная часть подобных сложных слов подвержена сандхи:

» + = », » + = », + = (), + = (), + = , + = ,
+ = , + = , + = ,
+ = , + = (), + = (), + = (), + = ().

Примечание:

утрачивает после «здесь», «где (относительное местоимение) «там» и «где?», а заменяет конечное долгое «а-а» ():

+ = «именно тут», + = «где бы то ни было»,
+ = «именно там», + = «где же».

В некоторых санскритских словах правила сандхи видоизменяются:

± (striyopayogi) «подходящий или полезный для женщин» вместо правильного ±.

© (uparokt) «вышеупомянутый» вместо ©:
(antarrastriy) «международный» вместо .

Присущее может произноситься, особенно на конце санскритских слов на или , напр., (ta-na-ya) «сын», (ma-na-va) «человек», или после спаренных согласных:

(prarambha) «начало».

(mantra) «заклинание».
(sarva) «всё».
(dhanya) «счастливый».

ГЛАВА IX

ВВЕДЕНИЕ

Предложение состоит из двух основных частей: подлежащего и сказуемого. Подлежащее – это то, о чем повествуется в предложении. Сказуемое – то, что говорится о подлежащем. Таким образом, в предложении «Рама прибывает» «Рама» – подлежащее, а «приезжает» – сказуемое.

И подлежащее и сказуемое могут состоять более чем из одного слова. В предложении «Служащий принес книги» «служащий» – подлежащее, а «принес» – сказуемое. Точно так же в предложении «Некоторые из моих друзей отсутствуют сегодня» «некоторые из моих друзей» – подлежащее, а «отсутствуют» – сказуемое. В предложении «Он – мальчик» «он» – подлежащее, а – «мальчик» ­– сказуемое. В предложении «Он стал безумным» «он» – подлежащее, а «стал безумным» – сказуемое.

(b) Глагол в хинди может быть переходным или непереходным, иметь или нет прямое дополнение.

(c) Некоторые глаголы имеют два дополнения: прямое (кто? что?) и косвенное (кому? чему?).

(d) Каждое слово в предложении выполняет одну из восьми функций, что обусловливает разделение слов на категории или классы, которые называют «частями речи»:

Существительное, местоимение, прилагательное, глагол, наречие, послелог (соответствует предлогу в европейских языках или падежным окончаниям), союз и междометие.

Существительные имеют два рода – мужской и женский, и два числа – единственное и множественное.

Местоимения, как и существительные, различаются по родам, числу и падежу.

Прилагательное имеет тот же самый род, число и падеж, как и существительное, которое оно определяет.

Наречие – это слово, которое определяет глагол.

Послелог – слово (напоминающее суффикс, окончание или предлог в европейских языках), идущее вслед за существительным и указывающее на отношение между существительным или местоимением и другим существительным, местоимением или глаголом.

Падежная форма существительного или местоимения выражается с помощью «падежных послелогов» , , , и .

По происхождению или этимологии слова хинди делятся на четыре класса:

Исконно индийские

ТАДБХАВА () «того же смысла», что и санскритские. Это – самый широкий пласт слов хинди, к которому принадлежат большинство существительных и прилагательных, почти все местоимения, глаголы, наречия, послелоги, союзы и междометия, пришедшие непосредственно из санскрита или через среднеиндийские языки пракриты (естественные) и апабхрамша (низкие).

«рука» из санскритского hasta;
© «спелый, готовый» из санскритского pakva;
«ты» из санскритского tvam;
«идти» из санскритского корня ya;
± «впереди» из санскритского agre;
«вчера или завтра» из санскритского kalve «утром, на следующий день»;
«и» из санскритского apara «также»;
«O», «Ох!» из санскритского и т.д.

ТАТСАМА () «тот же самый», то есть заимствованный из санскрита без изменений. Это – вторая по величине группа слов в современном, в первую очередь, особенно литературном хинди. Большинство слов этого разряда – существительные и прилагательные; некоторое количество – наречия, послелоги и союзы; но едва ли здесь есть глаголы и местоимения.

«царь, правитель», «язык», «мать», «отец», «женщина», «еда, пища», «отношение, связь, «конфета», «красивый», «превосходный», «известный», или «прошлый», «настоящий», «будущий», : «часто, иногда», : «поэтому», «или» и т. д.

2 (a). АРДХА-ТАТСАМА (-). Это – слова, заимствованные непосредственно из санскрита, но измененные в хинди.

(Skt. ) «год», (Skt. ) «драгоценный камень», ± (Skt.©) «приверженец», (Skt. ) «дело, судьба», (Skt, ) «Krsna», (Skt. ) «терпение, храбрость», (Skt. ) «дело, занятие, обряд».

Употребление большинства их ограничено разговорным языком. Некоторые имеют также соответствующую форму тадбхава иногда с модификацией значения. Таким образом, слово имеет соответствие в виде тадбхава «работа, обязанность»; слову соответствует тадбхава , которое используется в составе сложного слова - «деятельность, занятие». В современном литературном хинди наметилась тенденция восстанавливать оригинальные санскритские формы.

ДЕШИ («местный, народный») класс включает все слова, происхождение которых неясно или неизвестно. Очень многие из них, возможно, первоначально были заимствованы из дравидских языков или языков мунда Южной Индии. Примером могут служить «счет, набор из двадцати предметов», ® «пятно», ± «коралл» и «искать» и т. д.

Иностранные заимствования

ВИДЕШИ («иностранный») – это заимствования из арабского, персидского, турецкого, английского, португальского, французского и других языков. Наибольшую группу составляют заимствования из персидского и английского языков. Многие из этих заимствованных слов в несколько измененной форме настолько глубоко вросли в ткань разговорного языка хинди, что порой их едва ли можно отличить от исконных слов.

Арабские (главным образом, через персидский язык): «могила», ® «плохой, испорченный», ± «бумага», «закон» и т. д.

Персидские: «талия», «меньше, недостаточный», ® «пыль», ± «потерянный, неизвестный», ± «потерянный, неизвестный, скрытый», «назад, обратно» и т. д.

Турецкие: µ «нож», «орудие, оружие», «труп» и т. д.

Английские: «кнопка», «плата» «член», «булавка», «бензин», «полиция», «карандаш», «ботинок» и т. д.. Португальские (главным образом, через бенгальский язык, гуджарати и маратхи): «платяной шкаф» (порт. ал maris), « «рубашка», (порт. camis), (порт. camera) «комната», «стол» (порт. mesa), «сталь» (порт. espada), «полотенце» (порт. toalha) и т. д..

Французский: «патрон» (фр. cartouche), ± «англичанин» (фр. Anglais) и т. д.

ГЛАВА X

Имя существительное в европейских языках принято подразделять на несколько разрядов, которые иногда связаны с правилами словоупотребления, артиклями и т.д. В хинди эти подразделения вряд ли имеют какой-либо смысл. В хинди нет артиклей, нет маленьких и больших букв, все буквы во всех словах пишутся одинаково.

«Рама», «Сита», «мать», «сын», «дочь», «мальчик», «человек», ± «корова», «стул», «стол», «золото», µ «серебро», «дом», «лес», «улица», «страна», «город», ¤µ «высота», ± «глубина», «краснота», µ «детство», «юность», «рождение», «смерть», «учеба», «сон» и т. д..

Имена собственные, имена людей, названия: «Рама», «Сита», «Рамаяна».

Имена нарицательные: «отец», ± «учитель», «лев», «царь», «дом», «река», «гора», «море», «лес», «улица», «страна», «город» и т. д..

Абстрактные существительные: ± «достоинство», «привычка», µ «детство», «дружба».

Вещественные существительные:

«вода», «железо», «золото», µ «чай», «молоко», © «сахар».

Собирательные существительные:

«армия», «толпа», «семья», «собрание, совет».

Имена слегка изменяются по родам, числам и падежам.

«мальчик», «девочка», «мальчики», «мальчикам»; «ночь», «ночи», «ночью»; «дом», «в доме», «в домах».

В хинди два рода: мужской и женский. Частично род существительного обусловлен «естественным» делением на два пола, но частично имеет лишь условное грамматическое основание. Названия живых существ мужского рода: «мальчик», «бык». Названия женских существ - живых существ женского рода: «девочка», ± «корова».

(b) В случае названий неодушевленных вещей и абстрактных, собирательных и нарицательных существительных род обусловлен частично грамматической формой слова (например, в случае существительных, заканчивающихся на -i, которые относятся к женскому роду), но, главным образом, использованием. Некоторые правила определение рода и образования существительных женского рода даются в Приложении II.

(d) Язык хинди утратил средний род. Но его следы могут все еще обнаруживаться в местоимениях © «что» и ¶ «кое-что».

(c) As a rule, Неодушевленный Объект Глагола:

® «Рама ест фрукты»;
«Прачка стирает одежду»;
¦± «он принесет книги»;
± «слуга выпрашивает деньги»;
¦± «он попьет воды».

(e) Некоторые слова используются в общем роде: , и т.д..

ГЛАВА XI

Множественное число существительных часто используется как вежливая форма. Вежливая форма множественного числа употребляется только в прямом или именительном падеже, при этом, форму множественного числа имеют только существительные на -.

¦ «их сын пришли» (вежливо); но нельзя в этом же вежливом значении употребить выражение: , что будет означать «позовите их сыновей». Имея ввиду единственного сына, мы можем сказать , с почтением или без него. ¦ ±¦ «их сын были позваны», тем не менее, правильно, так как здесь стоит в прямом падеже.

Слова, обозначающие почтенных родственников µµ, «дядя», «дед» и т. д., конечно, не изменяются; только глаголы и прилагательные, связанные с ними, ставятся во мн. ч.:

¶ µµ ¦ «пришли мой младший дядя».

Существительные ж. р. также остаются неизменными, хотя глагол стоит во мн. ч.: (а не ¦) «пришли моя мать»; (а не ) «их дочь говорят».

Местоимения в вежливой форме имеют мн. ч.: µµ «они мои дядя (суть)».

«они моя старшая сестра (суть)».

, ± «Президент прибывают сюда завтра. Идут приготовления к их встрече».

Вещественные и собирательные существительные обычно используются только в единственном числе. Они могут иметь множественное для того, чтобы обозначить разновидности веществ или различных групп того же самого вида.

Многие существительные в хинди имеют ту же самую форму в ед. и мн. числе. Смысл устанавливается из контекста, по форме глагола и т. д. ¦ «один дом», «два дома».

Мн. число образуется согласно следующему правилу:

Все существительные м.р. за исключением оканчивающихся на во мн.ч. не изменяются: «дом, дома» (ед.), «бык, быки» (ед.), «мудрец, -ы» (ед.), «святой, -ые» (ед.), «брат, -ья» (ед.), «вор, грабитель, -ы, -и» (ед.), «ячмень» (ед.).

В существительных м.р., оканчивающихся на , мн. ч. Образуется путем замены на ¦:

«мальчик» – «мальчики»;
«лошадь» – «лошади»;
«алмаз» – «алмазы»;
«сын» – «сыны»;
«дорога» – «дороги».

Однако, существительные татсама на не изменяются: «царь, цари», «отец, отцы», «воин, воины».

Существительные, указывающие на отношения родства и имеющие удвоенный слог, не изменяются:

«дед по отцу», «дед по матери», или µµ «дядя по отцу», «дядя по матери».

Но «племянник», «сын» и «внук» и т.д., изменяются: «племянники», «сыны», «внуки» и т.д.

Еще некоторые существительные также не изменяются во мн.ч.: ± «вождь»; ® «глава»; «господин» (почтительное в некоторых кастах).

Все существительные ж.р. кроме оканчивающихся на , и , образуют множественное число путем прибавления ¦ (который не заменяет конечной гласной:

«лиана, побег» – ¦ «лианы»; «рассказ» – ¦ «рассказы»; «армия» – ¦ «армии»; «вещи» – ¦; «невеста, жена» – ¦ «невесты, жены»; «суховей» – ¦ «суховеи».

Примечание:

(i) Вместо ¦ часто пишут и т.д.. Но формы на не совсем правильны. Признаком мн.ч. является ¦, а не .

(ii) Обратите внимание на то, что -¤ изменяется на краткое - в словах наподобие и . ¤ внутри слова перед ¦ (¦) или () укорачивается: + ¦ = ¦ «жены».

(d) У существительных ж. р., оканчивающихся на непроизносимый -, ¦ добавляется к последнему согласному звуку: (произносимое ) «сестра» – «сестры»; () «ночь» – «ночи»; ± (±) «коровы» – ± «коровы»; ® (®) «око, глаз» – ® «очи» и т.д..

(e) У существительных ж. р., оканчивающихся на , или , окончанием мн. ч. будет :

«обычай» – ; «дата» – ; «девочка» – ; «река» – ; «дочь» – .

Примечание: - и - изменяются на --. Это обусловлено сандхи. Внутри слова - и - перед - и - (или - и -) изменяются на –-:

+ = ;

– ;

- ;
+ = «реки»;
+ -do- = «хлебы»;
© + (мн. ч. в звательном п.) = © «O силы небесные!»
+ = «О девочки!»
+ = «О братья!»
Также , и т.д..

В случае существительных на - - сливается с конечной -: «старуха» – «старухи» – µ «птица» – µ «птицы»; ± «кукла» – ± «куклы». Это обусловлено правилом сандхи:

+ , + , + или + = :
+ = , «закат».
+ = «Всевышний Дух».
+ = «занятие наукой, изучение».
+ = «школа».

Слова ж.р. на - ( и т.д.) образуют мн.ч. по общему правилу: «девушка, дочь» – ¦; «жена» – ¦.

К некоторым словам м.р., которые не изменяются во мн.ч., иногда добавляется слово ± «люди» для обозначения во мн. ч..: ± «цари» (как класс), ± «арии» (как класс), ± «святые, странники» (как класс). Эти словосочетания ( ± и т.п.) рассматриваются как одно целое, основной элемент (, и т.д.) не изменяется, а падежные послелоги добавляются к вспомогательному слову ±.

Примеч.: (1) ± добавляется к именам, обозначающим людей. Словосочетания вроде ±, ± или ± ( «дом», «обезьяна», «животное») не допустимы.

(2) Для той же цели, что и слово ±, употребляются ± «группа», ± «класс», . ±, и ± имеют только мн.ч., а ± – ед.ч..

(a) Слова м.р., обозначающие временной отрезок из нескольких месяцев или лет, оканчиваются во мн.ч. на -: «год» – «несколько лет»; «месяц» – «несколько месяцев».

Такое же окончание имеют многие круглые числительные: «десятки», «двацатки», µµ «двадцатьпятки», µ «пятидесятки», «сотни», «тысячи», ® «сотни тысяч», «десятки миллионов», (но следующие формы не возможны – , µ ).

Примечание:

«несколько десятков» – «десятками»,

«двадцатки» – «десятками, в большом количестве».

Существительные, показывающие продолжительность, меру, вес и т.п., принимают подобное окончание, когда указывают на большое и неопределенное число или количество. Это - внешне похоже на окончание мн.ч. косвенного п., используемое для мн.ч. прямого п..

±¦ «прошло несколько месяцев»;
± «прошло несколько лет»;
«много мер молока»;
± «много повозок зерна»;
«корзины фруктов»

«много мер зерна»;
«много куч фруктов»;
± «много повозок дров».

Но все эти существительные могут иметь во мн.ч. только прямую форму, когда им предшествует цифра или прилагательное, обозначающее неопределенное число: «три месяца», «несколько лет», «две меры молока», ± «три повозки зерна» и т.д..

Все окончания существительного в зависимости
от числа и падежа (прямого и косвенного)

ПРЯМОЙ КОСВЕННЫЙ

Ед. Мн. Ед. Мн.

1. М.р. – -: -¦, -
2. М.р. – остальные – нет

3. Ж.р. – -, - и -: -
4. Ж.р. – остальные: -¦

Примечание:

В м.р. есть только одно изменение - на -¦.

Во мн.ч. все косвенные формы имеют -.

Есть ряд особенностей в употреблении конструкции числительное + существительное меры, веса и т.д.:

«две чашки молока», «три корзины манго», ( и м.р. мн.ч., но , ± (а не , ±). Также (а не.... ....), (а не ........). Тем не менее, когда подчеркивается собирательный характер существительного, оно употребляется в единственном ч.: , и т.д..

ГЛАВА XII

® ± ` Рама почувствовал голод (себя голодным);
± «мальчик почувствовал жажду»;
:® «матери стало больно»;
«отец разгневался»;

«сестра испытала удовлетворение или почувствовала себя удовлетворенной»;
; «девочка устыдилась (почувствовала себя виноватой)»;
«слуга должен был уйти»;
® µ¦ ` мальчикам следует поиграть»;
µ¦ «Сите нужен карандаш»;

«он расценивает (считает) бедность как грех»;
± «не пачкайте книги»;
» ` он принимает веревку за змею».

Существительные, обозначающие время, когда используются адвербиально:

«приходите вечером»;
® «Рама пришел десятого числа»;
¤± «Я уеду в понедельник»;
«Он приезжает в полдень»;
«он работает ночью».

Когда существительное, обозначающее время (кроме слов, обозначающих дни и даты), определяется некоторым другим словом, послелог может быть опущен (290-b):

() «кто-то прибыл вчера вечером»;
Но ® «Сита написала письмо в понедельник»;
µ ® «он заболел пятого числа»;

Косвенная форма существительного выражает различные отношения с помощью послелогов, которые также называются падежными окончаниями:

, , , , и ka. Например, `мальчику` ( - мальчик), `в домах` ( - дом), «из городов» ( - город).

В единственном числе, однако, все существительные кроме слов мужского рода, заканчивающиеся на -, не изменяют свою форму перед послелогами:

«ночью», «из города», «дома, в доме».

Все другие существительные м.р. или ж.р. остаются неизменными в ед.ч.:

«брату», «сестре» и т.д..

Косвенные формы образуются следующим образом:

В единственном числе только существительные м.р., заканчивающиеся на -, изменяют - на -¦, (таким же образом и с теми же самыми исключениями как и в случае прямого падежа множественного числа 80-b):

Существительные tatsama [69 (2)], заканчивающиеся на -, не изменяются: «царь или цари», «отец или отцы», «воин или воины».

Существительные родства и имеющие повторную форму не изменяются: «дедушка по отцовской линии» (-»), «дедушка со стороны матери» (-»), или µµ «дядя со стороны отца» (-»), «дядя со стороны матери» (-»). Но «племянник», «сын» и «внук» и др., не имеющие повторной формы, изменяются как обычно: «племянники», «сыны», «внуки» и т.д..

Еще несколько существительных также не изменяются во множественном числе:

± «лидер, вождь» (-»); ® «глава»; «господин» (вежливое в некоторых кастах).

Все другие существительные м. и ж.р. остаютсянеизменными в единственном числе:

«брату», «сестре» и т.д..

Во множественном числе все существительные м.р. и ж.р. имеют окончание -, перед которым может появляться призвук --. (существительные м.р. на - вроде заменяют - на -):

© «способностям, силам»;

«девочкам»;
«братьям»;

«сестрам»;
«невестам, невесткам или женам»,
«мальчикам»;

но «царям»;

«отцам».

«дедушкам по матери», µµ «дядьям по отцу», «дядьям по матери», а также ± «царям».

- и - (в таких словах как © и ) заменяется на –, а -¤ (в таких словах как ) укорачивается.

В косвенных формах, таким образом, есть только две модификации:

(1) В ед.ч. м.р.: - меняется на -¦.
(2) Во мн.ч. все остальные существительные имеют -.

Изменения существительных ед. и мн. ч.
в косвенном падеже

Прямой Косвенный

Ед. Мн.

1. М.р. на - -- ¦ -¦ -
2. М.р. (все остальные) -- -- --

3. Ж.р. на -, - и - -- --

4. Ж.р. (все остальные) -- ¦- --

Следует отметить, что в ед.ч. в косвенном падеже есть только одно изменение - на -¦ в м.р.. Во мн.ч. все существительные в косвенном падеже имеют окончание -.

Также окончание -появляется в прямом падеже во мн.ч. у существительных ж.р. на -, - и –. Все остальные существительных ж.р. оканчиваются на -¦. Однако, есть исключение: в параграфе 83 приводится случай, когда - образует прямой падеж во мн. ч..

ГЛАВА XIV

Прямой падеж (то есть немодифицированная словарная форма существительного без окончаний) используется для обозначения следующих грамматических отношений:

Подлежащее (рассмотрению) при лаголе:

«мальчик приходит, приезжает»;
«мальчики читают книгу»;
«лошадь бежала»;
± µ «коровы жуют»;
±± «лист упадет»;
± «девочки прочитают книгу».
Исключения:

С прошедшим причастием переходного глагола (57), подлежащее имеет косвенную форму с послелогом :

«мальчик прочитал книгу».

® «мальчик съел фрукты»;
«Рама прочел книгу»;
± «коровы дали молоко»;
± ®µ «лошади тянули воз»;
® «брат написал письмо»;
® «девочка приготовила пищу»;

Но подлежащее при непереходном глаголе в прошедшем времени имеет прямую форму:

«мальчик пришел»;
«лошадь побежала»;
± ± «коровы ушли».

Исключения:

a) Несколько переходных глаголов, таких как «приносить», «забывать», «говорить», не употребляются с ; в то время как с глаголами » «понимать» и «болтать» употребление возможно.

«мальчик принес книгу»;
«сестры принесли фрукты»;
«он сказал»;
» «I understood»;
» «Я не понял то, что Вы сказали».

(b) Существительное в роли именной части сказуемого: cлово «отсутствующие» в предложении «мои друзья являются отсутствующими» и «мальчик» в предложении «он – мальчик» – это именные части сказуемого.

«Рама – мальчик»;
±± «Ганга и Ямуна – реки»;
µµ «они – дети»;
¦± «Лед станет (превратится) в воду».

(c) Как правило, неодушевленный объект глагола:

® «Рама ест фрукты»;
«Прачка стирает одежду»;
¦± «Он принесет книги»;
± «Слуга просит денег»;
¦± «Он попьет воды».

[ Мы имеем в этих примерах признание среднего (неодушевленного) рода, который, иначе, был бы совсем потерян в языке хинди. В санскрите формы существительных субъекта и объекта среднего рода идентичны.

Кроме того, одушевленный объект глагола, если он указывает на некое существо без каких-либо уточнений. (Конкретный одушевленный объект см. 94 (d)].

«Позовите мальчика»;
® «Я вижу мужчину»;
± «Он поищет девочку»;
® «Рама искал Ситу»;
But - ® «Купи две книги» (Неодушевленный объект);
«Мальчик бросает камни» (Неодушевленный объект);

® «Я ищу (какого-нибудь) слугу» (не конкретного слугу).

«Позовите слугу»;

® «Он никогда не видел льва»;
но ® «Он не видел (этого) льва».

Любое прямое дополнение (одушевленное или неодушевленное). Некоторые глаголы имеют два дополнения: так, в предложении «Я дал ему две книги» слово «книги» является прямым дополнением, а «ему» – косвенным. (В большинстве таких случаев, прямое дополнение отвечает на вопрос «что, кого?», а косвенное – «кому, чему?»)

«Я дал Раме лошадь»;
» ± «Мать даст мне два плода»;
± ¦ «Да дарует ему Бог сына!»;
» ¦ ± «Он просит у меня рупию».

Предикативное существительное, определяющее дополнение:

µ «Птицы выбрали лебедя своим царем»;
«Я сделал его своим другом»;
«Сита считает его своим братом»;
» «Я считал его другом»;
» «Я принял веревку за змею».

CHAPTER XV

Послелоги или падежные окончания

Как отмечалось выше (88), косвенная форма существительного выражает грамматические отношения с помощью «падежных окончаний» , , , , и . Они всегда помещаются после склоняемого существительного или местоимения. Их можно, поэтому, назвать «послелогами», в отличие от предлогов, которые помещаются перед существительным или местоимением.

Примечание: Падежные окончания всегда пишутся отдельно от существительного (как, например,

, и т.д.) но слитно с местоимениями (, , , , и т.д.).

соответствует окончанию творительного падежа, а существительное с ним называет деятеля, т.е. того, кто осуществил действие над каким либо объектом (действие в прошедшем времени передается прошедшим или страдательным причастием):

® «Мальчик съел плод» (букв. Плод съеден мальчиком);
«Рама прочел книгу» (букв. Книга прочтена Рамой);
± «Коровы дали молоко» (букв. Молоко дано коровами);
± ®µ «Лошади тянули воз» (букв. Повозка влеклась лошадьми);
® «Брат написал письмо» (букв. Письмо написано братом);
® «Девочка приготовила пищу» (букв. Пища приготовлена девочкой);

Но подлежащее при непереходном глаголе в прошедшем времени имеет прямую форму:

«Мальчик пришел»;
«Лошадь побежала»;
± ± «Коровы ушли».

Исключения:

Несколько переходных глаголов, таких как «приносить», «забывать», «говорить», не допускают употребления подлежащего с ; в то время как » «понимать» и «болтать» употребляются с и без .

Корни «приносить», «забывать», » «понимать», «болтать», «молвить, говорить», «бороться», «бояться», «встречать» образуют субъектную конструкцию в прошедшем времени несмотря на то, что являются переходными. Тем не менее, «приносить», фактически, состоит из

«брать» + «приходить»; а так как непереходный глагол, он определяет характер конструкции . Предложение вроде может интерпретироваться как () «Он пришел, взявши книгу».

Важно помнить, что, переходным или непереходным является главный корень, составной глагол допускает объектную конструкцию (с причастием прошедшего времени) только в том случае, если вспомогательный глагол переходен. Таким образом:

µ «Я пил чай» (объектная конструкция);
µ ` Я только что попил чаю» (объектная конструкция, т.к. – переходный глагол).

Но, µ µ «Я закончил пить чай» (субъектная конструкция, т.к. µ – непереходный глагол).

Главный глагол: корень (абсолютивная форма).

В составных глаголах этого класса главный глагол имеет абсолютивную форму без (243), которая тождественна его корню и является неизменной. Вспомогательными глаголами, обычно используемыми, являются следующие:

(a) «забывать» – обычно используется в сочетании с «идти», который является непереходным и, поэтому, придает конструкции субъектный характер: конструкция ± «Рама это (дело) забыл» намного чаще встречается, чем . или , фактически, означает «Рама допускал ошибку» или «я допускал ошибку», где – непереходный глагол. Важно помнить, что, переходен ли главный корень или непереходен, составной глагол допускает объективную конструкцию (с причастием прошедшего времени) только в том случае, если вспомогательный глагол является переходным. Таким образом:
µ «Я попил чаю» (объектная конструкция),
µ «Я только что попил чаю» (объектная конструкция, потому что – является непереходным глаголом). Но, µ µ «Я закончил пить чай» (субъективная конструкция, т.к. µ – непереходный глагол).

и используются и как переходные и как непереходные глаголы. В предложении «он болтал» является непереходным, а в ¶ «он наговорил много глупостей (много ерунды)» – переходным. В предложении « » глагол – непереходный. В предложении » «он сказал ложь» – переходный глагол. Однако, » является также распространенным выражением.

» входит в обе конструкции: », » «Я подумал» или «Я понял».

, и считают непереходными глаголами. «Дополнения» при этих глаголах употребляются с послелогом , который имеет значение предлога «от» или «(вместе) с»:

, однако, является переходным с родственным объектом (165-c): «Он сразился в нескольких сражениях». Опускание в вышеупомянутых глаголах может частично происходить из-за влияния диалекта.

«Мальчик принес книгу»;
«Сестры принесли фрукты»;
«Он сказал»;
» «Я понял»;
» «Я не понимал то, что Вы сказали».

(a) Причастие прошедшего времени сформировано, прилагая к корню:

(b) Однако, в корнях, заканчивающихся на -¤ и - эти гласные перед - укорачиваются, а в случае с корнями на - вставляется призвук - между корнем и . Таким образом,

(c) - вставляется и в случае корней, заканчивающихся на -, -¦ или -. Таким образом,

(d) Исключения

используется для обозначения дательного падежа:

® ± «Рама почувствовал голод (букв. Раме почувствовался голод);
± «Мальчик почувствовал жажду» (букв. «Мальчику почувствовалась жажда»);
:® «Матери стало больно»;
«Отец разгневался» (букв. К отцу пришел гнев);

Сестра почувствовала удовлетворение» (букв. Сестре было удовлетворение);
; «Девочка устыдилась» (букв. К девочке пришел стыд);
«Слуге пришлось пойти»;
® µ¦ «Мальчикам нужно поиграть»;
µ¦ «Сите нужен карандаш»;
«Раме нужно уходить»;
«Мохану предстоит много работы»;
«Мохану известно»;
«Раме принадлежит это право»;

«Мальчику повстречался его друг»

Но «Мальчик встретился со своим другом».

«Раме досталось наказание» (Рама был наказан);
Следует заметить, что в первом предложении стоит в ж.р. ед.ч., согласуясь с дополнением . Подлежащее (м.р.ед.ч.) не согласуется с глаголом. ®, и в других трех предложениях точно так же согласуются с дополнениями ® (м.р. ед.ч.) (м.р. мн.ч.), и µ (ж.р.ед.ч.).

µ «Девочке достался ушиб» (Девочка ушиблась);
µ¶ ± «Мальчику плод понравился»;
± «Брату это не понравилось»;
® «У девочки температура»;
«Мальчик не помнит» (букв. Мальчику не помнится);
«У мужчины отсутствует сознание».

, , ± и формируют непереходные сложные глаголы с пассивным (страдательным) значением, хотя по форме выглядят активными глаголами действительного залога. Действие, состояние и т.д., обозначенное ими, предстает как испытанное, перенесенное, обладаемое, чувствуемое и т.д. или случающееся с дополнением, стоящим в косвенном падеже с послелогом или окончанием -¦.

Независимо от того, что субъект переносит или испытывает, независимо от того, что случается с ним, процесс предстает как имеющий место сам по себе, а не как производимый кем-то. То, что испытавается, стоит в прямом падеже, а глагол согласуется с этим существительным.

(a) и в сочетании с инфинитивом обозначают «потребность, обязательство, требование» и т.д.

«Раме пришлось уйти»;
» ± «Мне предстоит поехать в Бомбей».
«Слуге нужно было идти на базар».
Инфинитивы здесь используются как абстрактные существительные.

Однако, когда инфинитив является переходным глаголом, то он используется как прилагательное к своему дополнению и изменяет свое окончание - на - или –ne, в зависимости от рода дополнения. Вспомогательные глаголы также согласуются с дополнением в числе и роде.

± «Мальчику придется выпить лекарство».
» ® «Мне нужно было написать три письма».

Заметьте ! Неправильно выражаться так: µµ или » ® , как частенько можно слышать по аналогии с непереходными инфинитивами ( ±, и т.д.).

µ¦ «нужно» или «надо» сочетается с уществительным или инфинитивом. Дополнение в дательном падеже оканчивается на или -¦:

µ¦ «Раме нужны книги»;

© µ¦ «Что тебе нужно?»
µ¦ «Вам надо пойти» (инфинитив в роли существительного);
µ¦ «Вам надо прочесть книги» (инфинитив в роли прилагательного);

Одушевленный предмет, обозначающий конкретное существо:

«Позови мальчика!»
® « Я вижу человека»;
± «Он будет искать девочку»;
® «Рама искал Ситу».

Но: ® «Купи две книги» (неодушевленные предметы);
«Мальчик бросает камни» (неодушевленные предметы);

® «Я ищу слугу» (но не конкретного).

Дополнение в нейтральной конструкции

® «Рама увидел мальчика»,
«Брат позвал сестру»;
± «Камни были выброшены»;
± ¦ «Пусть эти здания будут уничтожены».

Прямое дополнение (обычно неодушевленное):

«Мать дает фрукты мальчику»;
® «Рама написал письмо Шьяму»;
µ «Дай корм лошади».

Дополнение при глаголе, требующем предикативного слова (связанного по смыслу с дополнением):

«Он считает бедность грехом»;
± «Не пачкай книги»;
» «Он принимает веревку за змею».

Существительные, обозначающие время, когда они используются адвербиально:

«Приходи вечером»;
® «Рама приехал десятого числа»;
¤± «Я уеду в понедельник»;
«Он приходит в полдень»;
«Он работает ночью».

Когда существительное, обозначающее время, определяется некоторым другим словом, может быть опущен, кроме случаев, когда он употребляется со словами, обозначающими дни и даты:

() «Кто-то прибыл вчера вечером»;
Но: ® «Сита написала письмо в понедельник»;
µ ® «Он заболел пятого числа».

Употребление .

Местоимение, указывающее на человека, когда используется как дополнение всегда требует или его эквиваленты -¦ или -. Мы можем сказать ® (объектная конструкция) или ® (нейтральная конструкция). Но мы не можем сказать ®. Когда относится к и т.д., мы должны сказать () ®. Это происходит вследствие того, что или указывает на конкретного человека. Следовательно, выражение ® является небрежным.

(b) Выражения ±, ± ¦ и т.д. являются формальными, хотя и часто встречаются. Неодушевленные предметы должны использоваться без ( ¦ ±¦, ± ¦ ¦) за исключением переходных глаголов с неполной предикацией вроде ±, » ±.

(a) (-¦, -) обычно указывает на адресат поздравления, уважения, приветствия, благодарности, осуждения и т.д. (с или без глагола, требующего двух дополнений).

± – поклон наставнику!

– поздравление Вам!

– благодарение богу!

© – порицание (проклятие) тебе!

(b) (-¦, -) указывает на человека, испытывающего беспокойство, несущего потери и т.д.

© ? – А тебе какое дело до этого (а тебе что от этого)?

© ? Почему Вы беспокоитесь (что на Вас нашло)?

( ) – Рама оказался в выигрыше (в проигрыше) – букв. Раме была удача (неудача).

сосответствует окончанию творительного падежа и используется для обозначения деятеля при безличном глаголе или глаголе в страдетельном залоге (171):

® – Рама неспособен написать письмо (письмо не пишется Рамой).

± – Мальчик не мог бежать (букв. мальчиком не бежалось).

Косвенные дополнения (которые обычно обозначают людей) глаголов, означающих «сказать, говорить, просить, требовать, вопрошать»:

... – Брат сказал Раме, что...
... – Канта сказал матери, что...
¶... – Я спросил мальчика...
» ± ... – Слуга просит у меня рупию.

Средство, инструмент или деятеля:

µ – пошлите новости телеграммой!
– Он не путешествует поездом.
µ – Разрежьте фрукты ножом!
® – Я пишу карандашом.
– Прикажите, чтобы эта работа была сделана слугою.

(c) Это правило, однако, применимо только к таким каузальным глаголам, которые обозначают реальную деятельность со стороны субъекта, а не просто каузальность (побуждение к совершению чего-либо). Там, где выражается просто побуждение к действию, косвенное дополнение, обозначающее исполнителя (деятеля), стоит в косвенном падеже с послелогом :

В случае глагола типа (b) оригинальный субъект и объект остаются тем, чем они были в первом каузале, а именно, вторичным объектом и первичным объектом, в то время как субъект первого каузального глагола имеет послелог :

Образ действия:

Слушайте со вниманием (внимательно!).
± Ты будешь читать (это) с непринужденностью (легко).

Он смог приехать с некоторыми трудностями.

Причина, происхождение:

® ± Листья усохли от солнечного тепла.
Он умер от холеры.
Мальчик боится собаки.
Творог делается из молока.

Ассоциация, антагонизм:

» Мохан встретился со мной.
[But » Мне повстречался Мохан.
Не дерись с братом!
Равана сразился с Рамой. указывает на причину в предложении µµ (Ребенок боится собаки) и ассоциацию в предложении или » . , и в этих предложениях являются косвенными дополнениями.

Разделение или отделение:

± Лист упал с дерева.

µ Держись подальше от грешников!
µ ± Он ушел из города.

Отправная точка (места или времени):

Река далеко от города.
Рама болен со вчерашнего дня.

Длительность действия (в отношении настоящего или прошлого): µ Он здесь четыре года.

¶ ® Я не ел ничто два дня.

Различие или сравнение между двумя человеками или предметами

± Эти чернила отличаются от этих.

Рама старше Мохана.

Косвенные дополнения (которые являются обычно людьми) глаголов, означающих «сказать», «говорить», «просить», «выпрашивать», «требовать», «запрашивать»:

... Брат сказал Раме, что...
... Канта сказал матери...
¶... Я спросил мальчика...
» ± ... Слуга просит у меня рупию…

¶ Моложе чем Рама.
µ Выше всех.
µ¶ Этот плод лучше, чем тот.
¶ Он меньше всех.

используется для обозначения:

(a) Местоположение или присутствие (чего-нибудь) в или в пределах чего-нибудь:

Мой дом находится в городе.

Мать находится в доме.
Он учится в школе.

µ © В чае нет сахара.
В книге тридцать уроков.

Длительность:

Я прочитал эту книгу за три дня.
¦ – Дом был построен за один год.

Цена:

– Карандаш стоит три аны;
– Эта книга куплена (досталась за) две рупии.
µ – Я купил эту ткань за пять рупий.
(d) Сравнение или различие с большим, чем два, количеством:

µ¶ – Рама является лучшим из этих мальчиков.

– Есть различие между человеком и человеком.

обозначает местоположение или положение на или на поверхности чего-либо:

– Книга находится на столе.
– На дереве есть фрукты.
¤µ – Мой дом (расположен) на высоте.
® – Он стоит в двери (на пороге).
¶ – Шанта находится на крыше.
¶ – На некотором расстоянии.

¦ – На расстоянии одной мили отсюда.

Момент времени, в который происходит действие:

µ – Я прибыл в нужное время.

– Поезд прибывает в два часа десять минут.

Последовательность действий или событий:

® ... – Придя туда, я увидел...
® ± – По прибытии президента все встали.

Причина или повод:

µ ± – Он был уволен по совершении кражи (за то, что совершил кражу).

(e) Дополнения (составных) глаголов, обозначающих милосердие, веру, уверенность, гнев и т.д.:

– Будь милосерден к животным.
– Верь в Бога.
– Он гневается на служащих

является послелогом родительного падежа. Если определяемое существительное, которое следует за ним, женского рода (ед. или мн. ч.), изменяется на ; если же мужского рода и множественного числа, то изменяется на .

Владение и отношения принадлежности:

– Брат Рамы.
(or ) – Сестра (сестры) Рамы.
(or ) ® – Сестра (сестры) Рамы приготовили еду.
– Братья Рамы.
(or ) – Брат (-ья) Рамы сказали.

Материал или состав:

– Браслет из золота.

– Дом из камня.
– Собрание женщин.
± – Лодка из бумаги.

Ценность и мера (место или время):

¦ © – Сахар по цене рупия.
µ – Фрукты, стоящие четыре анны.
¦ – Расстояние в одну милю;
± µ – Простыня в два ярда.
µ – Мальчик пяти лет.

Источник, происхождение, причина:

– Пьесы Калидасы.
¶ ± – Инфекционные болезни.
® – Продукт поля (с/х производство).

Определение:

– Работа слуги.
± – Жужжание пчел.
– По Вашей милости (с Вашего позволения).

µµ – Образование детей.
– Убийство женщины.
– Расход денег.

Часть целого:

– Кусок хлеба.
– Страница книги.

Цель:

– Вода для питья.
® – Обеденный стол.

Особенность:

µµ – Невиновность ребенка.
– Любовь матери.
– Нежность цветов.

Заметьте: Существительное или местоимение, к которому относится , ведет себя как прилагательное на - и определяет существительное, которое следует за ним. , поэтому, изменяется как окончание - в прилагательном, согласуясь с последующим существительным в числе, роде и падеже. Косвенные формы местоимений на -, а именно, , , , , , , и (кроме выражения ) и т.д., используются всегда как прилагательные. Фактически, наклонные формы всех Существительных с можно также рассмотреть, поскольку Притяжательное Прилагательное изменяется на - и - ¦.

Заметьте: используется также как усилительное (или эмфатическое) прилагательное, когда оно следует за существительным или местоимением с - или - и означает «собственный». Формы местоимений на - или -, определяющие подлежащее, всегда заменяются рефлексивным . «собственный» (со своими модификациями и ), фактически, – прилагательное от и используется как таковое.

± – Мальчик просит свою книгу.

– Мальчик сказал своей матери.

(а не ) – Рама читает свой урок.
(а не ) – Мальчик разорвал свою книгу.
(а не ) – Он сказал своему брату.
(а не ) – Я иду домой.
(а не ) – Вы делаете свою работу.
(а не ) ± – Он нашел свою книгу.
(а не ) – Рама должен прочитать свой урок.
(а не ) µ – Он узнал от своего брата.
Но – Его брат сказал ему. Здесь – косвенное дополнение в дательном падеже.

Отметьте различие

– Я встретил его в своем доме. (– подлежащее).
– Я встретил его в его доме. ( – подлежащее).
» – Он встретил меня в своем доме. ( – подлежащее).
» – Он встретил меня в моем доме. ( – подлежащее).

(возвратное местоимение ведет себя как прилагательное. Оно заменяет притяжательные местоимения твой, мой, твой (вежл.), его и т.д.) во всех случаях, когда они определяют логическое подлежащее в предложении (или «деятель»), находится ли это логическое подлежащее в прямом или косвенном падеже с или (в страдательном залоге) или с .

В прямом или косвенном падеже с логическое подлежащее совпадает с грамматическим:

– Я делаю свою работу.

– Мною сделана моя работа.

» (») µ¶ ± – Мне моя работа нравится.

» – Мною моя работа не делается.

Во всех четырех предложениях местоимение заменило .

Но в предложении наподобие –

» – Мне мой брат сказал –

не может быть заменено на .

иногда используется для обозначения (или ) = + (или ) в таких предложениях как:

– Этот дом наш (ваш и мой), где говорящий человек включен в либо фактически, или из дружелюбия, или смирения со стороны говорящего (дом, фактически, принадлежит одному говорящему).

Дальнейшее расширение дружелюбия или смирения достигается во фразе:

(Этот дом ведь Ваш) вместо (Этот дом мой).

Однако, используется как усилительное прилагательное (собственный), определяющее формы на - или –, за которыми оно неизменно следует:

– собственный дом Рамы;

– моя собственная книга;

– твоя собственная одежда и т.д..

(a) Adjectives ending in (including Possessive Adjectives change to when qualifiying a Feminine Nown in any case or number:

µ¶ `a good boy`, but µ¶ `a good girl`; µ¶ , µ¶ , µ¶ , similarly , , , etc.

The changes to ¦ when the Adjective is qualifying a Masculine Noun either in the oblique form or in the Plural (Direct Oblique) : µ¶ , µ¶ `good boys`, µ¶ , , ` my brothers`, etc. A few A - Adjectives are excepted from this rule: `one and a quarter`, `of superior quality`, `of inferior quality`, `nice`, ® `unhappy, unfortunate`. All the other Adjectives ( `red`, `heavy` etc.) remain unchanged: (masc.) `red cloth`, , `red cloths`, `red sari`. Case-signs are attached only to the Nouns, the Adjective having only the oblique form: µ¶ , , , , © , ± but see :- Adjectives denoting quality, number and quantity may be used as Nouns, when they are affected by Case and Number in the same way as Nouns , ¶ , , ¦ , µ , , ¶ , ; used as a Noun denotes `a thing`, or person belonging to oneself, ¶., however, does not change: ¶ (Plural).

(a) attached to the oblique form of a Noun or a Pronoun denotes `like`, which then functions as an Adjective :

±- cow-like`, - `dog-like`, »- `me-like`, - `you-like`,

- `them-like`.

The of these Adjectives changes in the oblique and the Feminine like ordinary -Adjectives.

For further use of , See:- A Noun or Pronoun + and the corresponding forms of , etc. are, in fact, adjectives (eding in- ).

is `Ram-owned book`, and

is `gold-made bangle`.

It is due to the adjectival nature of these , forms that they change to , , and as all - ending adjectives do.

Vocative Case

The vocative case, i.e., the form of a Noun used for addressing or calling a person, such as Ram, come here! has no relation with the other words in the sentence. Ram is, in fact, itself an independent sentence conveying such ideas as `listen to me`, `pay attention!`, `be careful!` `don`t do it!` etc. in accordance with the situation and teh intonation of the vocative word. The vocative form is identical with the oblique, except that in the plural, loss its nasalization. There are no case-signs but certain Interjections () ! Boy!` () `Boys!`

(¦) ! Girl!` () `Girls!`

! `O God!` µ `O wretch!`.

But µµ! `Uncle!` ! `Grandpa! etc. do not change.

Note: The nasalized (-) forms should never be used for vocative plural, as is sometimes done by careless writers.

й

CHAPTER XVI

``A Pronoun is a word used instead of a Noun``. It functions as a Noun, except that it cannot be used as the name of a person or a thing. It is ``used instead of a Noun that is used elsewhere or is suggested by the context. Thus it permits us to avoid the unpleasant repetition of a Noun or the unnecessary naming of a person (or thing) that is already known``. (Curme).

A Hindi Pronoun is, like a Noun, affected by Number and case, but not by Gender (which is indicated by the verbal forms, or by the Adjectives).

In Hindi, there are six classes of Pronouns:

(1) Personal, (2) Demonstrativ, (3) Reflexive, (4) Relative,
(5) Indefinite, and (6) Interrogative.

Personal Pronouns are used for `the person speaking`, the person spoken to` and `the person or thing spoken about`. There are thus three Persons:

Pronouns indicating the person speaking are said to be of the First Person. These are `I` (singular) and `we` (plural). ( is oftern used for by authors and editors and colloquially). Pronouns indicating the person spoken to are said to be of the Second Person. These are `thou` (singular), `you` (plural) and `you` (honorific: always takes third person plural verbs). is used in addressing God, children and, occasionally, very intimate friends. It may also be used in anger or to express disrespect or in fondly addressing one`s mother, sister, younger brother etc. (but seldom father, uncle and grandfather). is used in addressing God, children and, occasionally, very intimate friends. It may also be used in a nger or to express disrespect or in fondly addressing one`s mother, sister, younger brother etc. (but seldom father, uncle and grandfather). is the polite and respectful form of address for all, both in the singular and the plural. (it is occasionally used also for a person `spoken about`.) See font face=AkrutiOffdevDynamic size=5The singular forms and are not used for a person unless he (or she) can also be addressed as when spoken to. and are the usual forms in both singular and plural. For things, however, the ``correct`` number is used. In polite speech, is almost invariably used instead of when the person spoken about is present (as``the gentleman here``)..Pronouns referring to the person or thing spoken about (other than the person speaking and the person spoken to) are said to be of the Third Person. These are and `he, she, it` (singular), and and `they and these` (plural).

(i) , , and are really Demonstrative Pronouns, used also as Personal. See:- Demonstrative Pronouns are used for `pointing out` a relatively remote or proximate person or thing. The Demonstrative Pronouns are:- , , and are Personal or Demonstrative, can be ascertained from only the situation or the context. When there is definite `pointing out`, they are Demonstrative. When there is more substitution of Nouns, they are Personal. In talk, Demonstrative pronouns are often accompanied with gesture `i.e.` `pointing out`.

and refer to the absent or relatively remote person (s) and thing (s); (``he, she, it-three,»«; and refer to the present or relatively proximate person (s) and thing (s)- (``he, she, it-here``, ``these-here)»«. The singular forms and are not used for a person unless he (or she) can also be addressed as when spoken to. and are the usual forms in both singular and plural. For things, however, the ``correct`` number is used. In polite speech, is almost invariably used instead of when the person spoken about is present (as``the gentleman here``). In writing, is sometimes used (as ``the gentleman``) for an author, scholar, leader etc. introduced or described to the readers. The usage, however, is somewhat archaic. Use of and Plural forms, though common, should be carefully avoided.

All the Pronouns (of whatever class) except , and and the Reflexive (109) are considered to be of the Third Person. See:- Thus, the present Indicative forms of the root µ are as follows:-with a Masculine subject:-

singular plural

First Person µ `I move`, µ `we move`.
Second Person µ `thou movest`, µ `you move`.
Third Person µ `he (or it) moves`, µ `they move`.

With a Feminine subject:-

singular Plural

1st person µ µ
2nd µ µ
3rd µ µ

Note (ii). Generally, and are pronounced as and .

Demonstrative Pronouns are used for `pointing out` a relatively remote or proximate person or thing. The Demonstrative Pronouns are:- , , and are Personal or Demonstrative, can be ascertained from only the situation or the context. When there is definite `pointing out`, they are Demonstrative. When there is more substitution of Nouns, they are Personal. In talk, Demonstrative pronouns are often accompanied with gesture `i.e.` `pointing out`. Reflexive Pronouns substitue and refer to a Noun or Pronoun which is, as a rule, the logical subject of the sentence.

Hindi has only three Reflexive Pronouns : , its oblique forms and , and a compound of these two, -; ± `each other` or `one another` (119-21). The latter is also, in its origin, a Reflexive Pronoun.

Of these, (occasionally followed by ) [294 (a)] has an adjectival (intensifying) force and qualifies a Noun or Pronoun which it usually follows, and which, as a rule, is the logical subject of the sentence.

() ± `Ram himself had gone there`;

» ± `I shall have to go myself`;

() ¦± `they themselves will come`;

® `Ram is himself hungry`;

® `he himself has written this letter`.

(i) is frequently replaced by (Sanskrit) or by ® (Persian): () ± , ¦±, ® ® |

() occasionally qualufies Nouns or Pronouns which are not the logical subjects of the sentences:

± `he has himself become a bankrupt`;

() `the leader himself has no courage.`

The current tendency, however, is to replace in all such cases by or ® ± , () |

Note also that , used as an Adjective, does not attach case-signs. (See:- The Reflexive as already stated [109 (b).] change to before , , and : , etc. is not attached to the reflexive , but only the subject (Noun or Pronoun) to which refers. In such cases, itself remains unchanged.

() Ram himself did this work`
» `he himself sent for me`.

For denoting the various senses of , changes to , , [109 (d)]

The Plural forms are the same as those of the Singular.

- remains unchanged.

can, however, be used also as an Adverb, when it means `of one`s own accord, spontaneously`. Thus, ± can denote, if the context so demands, `Ram had gone there of his own accord`. cf. the adverbial use of -, under (c) below. The Reflexive is, of course, to be differentiated from the personal which is nothing but a polite form of (or or ), while the Reflexive can refer to any `person`. The oblique form of is meaning, oneself, with , , or pr as required (but never with ). See:- The Reflexive as already stated [109 (b).] change to before , , and : , etc. is not attached to the reflexive , but only the subject (Noun or Pronoun) to which refers. In such cases, itself remains unchanged.

() Ram himself did this work`
» `he himself sent for me`.

For denoting the various senses of , changes to , , [109 (d)]

The Plural forms are the same as those of the Singular.

- remains unchanged.

refers to a Noun or a Pronoun which must be the logical subject of the sentence:

`Ram found himself in the forest`;

® `nobody sees a fault in himself.`

- is used either as an emphatic (or unambiguous) form for the oblique (see note below), or as an adverb maning `of one`s own accord, automatically, spontaneously`. Thus:-

(-) `Sita blamed herself (her own self)»

(-) ¶ `I asked myself (my own self)».

But in - µ ± `he went away of his own accord`, - is adverbial, and can be replaced by : µ ±. see:- can, however, be used also as an Adverb, when it means `of one`s own accord, spontaneously`. Thus, ± can denote, if the context so demands, `Ram had gone there of his own accord`. cf. the adverbial use of -, under (c) below.

(d) `belonging to oneself`, `one`s own`, is, in fact, an Adjective derived from , and is used (like the forms: 101 Note) as such (with its modifications and ) provided the person it refers to is the logical subject of the sentence.

± `the boy asks for his book`;

`the boy told his mother,»

Note: and - (except when adverbial) are used only in the oblique cases with , , , and pr (but never with ) . In -, is really a Nown meaning `self` so that - = one`s self. is the shorter form of -, with the Noun omitted, but implied, so that = - =one`s self = oneself.

110. A relative Pronoun is related to a Noun or a Pronoun occurring in the main sentence, the Relative itself occurring in a subordinate sentence and joining the two.

Hinid has only one Relative Pronoun, `who, which, that, what.`

± ® ± `the pencil,which had been lost, has been found.`

The main sentence is ± `the pencil has been found`; the subordinate sentence is ` ® ± ` `which had been lost, has been found.`

The main sentence is ± `the pencil has been found`; the subordinate sentence is ` ® ± ` `which had been lost`. `which had been lost`. which occurs in the latter is related to occurring in the main sentence, and joins the two sentences like a conjunction. See:-Conjunctions are words which join together or connect words, sentences, or Parts of a sentence (67): Mother and child came. (2) Is it good or bad? (3) I came, but you had gone. (4) you said that you would come. (5) The servant will wait until you come.

It is, however, not often that a conjunction connects two words, sentences, `mother came` and `child came` which have been contracted into one for the sake of economy. Similarly, `is it good or bad` is contracted from `isit good` and `is it bad`. Only in sentences like, `put two and two together`, or `Sita and Kamla are cousin` can a conjuntion be said to connect two words. In the third example, `I came but you had gone`, the two smaller sentences are independent of each other. In the fourth sentence, however, `you would come` is subordinate to `you said`, since it functions as the object of `said`. In the last sentence, `until you come` is subordinate sentences so the main sentences to the main sentence are called Subordinating. `and`, `or`, and `but` in the above examples are Co-ordinating; `that` and `until` are subordinating.). Similarly, , µ ± `he, who had come, is gone`. Here µ ± is the main sentence and is the subordinate one. joins the two, at the same time being related to .

is both Singular and Plural. is always accompanied with or in the main sentence. Both and () refer to one and the same person or thing. () is called the `Correlative` of . (`he, they), as a Correlative of is now obsolete except in proverbs and maxims.

Indefinite Pronouns refer to an unknown or unidentified person or thing.

Hindi has only two Indefinite Pronouns and ¶; `someone, somebody` refers to a person and ¶ `somethings` to a thing.

`Somebody is coming;

¶ ® ± `he has lost something`;

¶ ± `something has fallen into the milk`;

`nobody came to-day.`

¶ `there is nothing in the house.`

(i) ¶ along with © (114), is really a neuter form-a rare occurrence in Hindi.

(ii) ¶ is also used as an adjective (numeral and quantitative) and as an Adverb meaning `some`, `a few`, `a little`, `partly`.

(iii) may be used as an Adverb, in the sense of `some, about`.

may also be used as the plural form and signify `some people` `some people are coming`.

Interrogative Pronouns are used in asking questions.

Hind has only two Interrogative Pronouns- and ©, the former usually referring tp `person` and the latter to `things` either in singular or in plural:

? `who is he?`;
© ? `what is this ?`;
? `who are they ?`;
© ? `what are these ?`

© is really a neuter form - a rare oceeurremce in Hindi.

© (frequently expressed but occasionally implied) is used for denoting the interrogative nature of a sentence (except when another interrogativ word is present (192 Note):

© ? `has he come?`;
(©) ± ? `has Ram gone to sleep?.

For further uses of © (as a Compound Pronoun),©-© `which things?`, `what things?`:
©-© ¦ ? `what things has brother brought of situation, usually for the worse. ©--© denotes unexpected and abruptchange of situation, usually for the worse. ©.....© is adverbial and denotes, equally, without difference or distinction. It has a conjunctive force.
© , © , ® `you and he are both (equally) fools`.
© , © , ± `whether rich or poor, all will pass away`.
and © may be used as a Relative Pronoun:
, `nobody knows who he is.`
± © `find out what he did yesterday.`
© is used as an Exclamatory Adjective for denoting the surprising or striking nature of some quality etc:
© () ! `what a lovely scene!`
© ± ! `what an idiotic person !`
© ! `what foolishness is this!`

© is also used as Adverb expressing emphatic negation:
© , `call him a man? he is a demon`;
µµ © , ± `it`s not a child, it`s a rose.`
© , `dose he run? he flies!`
« © ± `you will win the case? impossible!
Another Adverbial use of © is as a declarative, rhetorical in terrogative:
© ! `here lies your book! can`t you see?
© `am I not sitting here (don`t you see, I am sitting here)?`
The pair © ....© ©-© `which things?`, `what things?`:
©-© ¦ ? `what things has brother brought of situation, usually for the worse. is also adverbial (conjunctive) in sense.

CHAPTER XVII

Hindi Pronouns attach the same case-signs as the Nouns, namely, , , , , and . But the oblique itself, in some cases, is formed differently from the Noun.

The oblique forms of the various Pronouns are made as follows:

In the singular, , , and change respectively to , , and while and © change to and and ¶ to before all the case-signs: , , , , . In the Plural, except before , these change to , , , , and :, , , . Before , the Plural oblique forms are , , , and : , , , . and remain unchanged before : , . Followed by the rest of the case-signs, and change to » and »: », ». and remain unchanged before all case-signs: ,, , , . , and do not attach . Instead, they change into , , and . These latter forms have all the significations of and modify to , , , and , , , . When used as an Adjective

(ii) ¶ is also used as an adjective (numeral and quantitative) and as an Adverb meaning `some`, `a few`, `a little`, `partly`.

¶ remains unchanged See refers to a Noun or a Pronoun which must be the logical subject of the sentence:

`Ram found himself in the forest`;

® `nobody sees a fault in himself.`

Adjectives denoting quality, number and quantity may be used as Nouns, when they are affected by Case and Number in the same way as Nouns , ¶ , , ¦ , µ , , ¶ , ; used as a Noun denotes `a thing`, or person belonging to oneself, ¶., however, does not change: ¶ (Plural)..

An an alternative to , all the oblique forms attach ¦ in Singular and in Plural: (= ), (= ), , , », , , however, makes and not (See:- », » (114) With pronouns, the forms and , a pronominal case-sign would have been completely discarded but for its utility in the adjectival use of Pronouns. In such phrases as » ¦, ± . (127), -¦ or - forms cannot be used.

Note: The indefinite Pronouns and ¶ do not attach ¦ or .

The Personal Pronoun attaches all case-signs without any change , , .

Note: The Personal Pronoun is always Plural (honorific).

The Reflexive as already stated See:- refers to a Noun or a Pronoun which must be the logical subject of the sentence:

`Ram found himself in the forest`;

® `nobody sees a fault in himself.`

change to before , , and : , etc. is not attached to the reflexive , but only the subject (Noun or Pronoun) to which refers. In such cases, itself remains unchanged.

() Ram himself did this work`
» `he himself sent for me`.

For denoting the various senses of , changes to , , [See :- (d) `belonging to oneself`, `one`s own`, is, in fact, an Adjective derived from , and is used (like the forms: 101 Note) as such (with its modifications and ) provided the person it refers to is the logical subject of the sentence.

± `the boy asks for his book`;

`the boy told his mother,»

The Plural forms are the same as those of the Singular.

- remains unchanged.

CHAPTER XVIII

Compound Pronouns: Two or more Pronouns may be compounded, or the same Pronoun repeated to denote various shades of meanings. The following are some of the more important combinations:-

- See:- - is used either as an emphatic (or unambiguous) form for the oblique (see note below), or as an adverb maning `of one`s own accord, automatically, spontaneously`. Thus:-

(-) `Sita blamed herself (her own self)»

(-) ¶ `I asked myself (my own self)».

But in - µ ± `he went away of his own accord`, - is adverbial, and can be replaced by : µ ±. and See - (109-c) may be used as an Adverb of manner and denotes `of one`s own accord, spontaneously`:
- µ ± `he went away of his own accord,
-- = - adverb. See:- -- = `spontaneously` =
-- `by oneself`, `to oneself`, `aside (in dramas)».
`who (so)ever,» ¶ `what (so) ever`:
¦, ±
`whosoever comes is welcome`.
¶ , ® `keep whatever you get`.
-= or -¶
- ¦, ® `whosoever may come, feed him`.
- µ¦, ± `whatsoever is required, will be given`.
= :
± `the man, who was ill, is dead`. is now archaic, and may be discarded.
- `some, a few` (archaic):
- `some, work during the night`.
`all, everybody (prural)» (archaic):
`everybody gets up in the morning.`
= `everybody` [but singular (archaic)]: `everybody knows`
-- (App. III 5 (j) `someone or the other,» `somebody or the other,»;

-- ± `someone or the other must be in the house.`

(11) ..... `some.....others`, or `one......another`;

, `some are coming, others are going`;
µ¶ , `one is good, another is bad`.
This use of .... is conjunctive.

¶ ¶ (App. III 5 (j) `someone or the other`:
¶--¶ ± `we shall do something or the other`;

(13) ¶ ¶ `something quite different from what was intended or expected`:
¶ ¶ » `you took it quite differently`;
¶ ¶ ± `something unexpected happened`.

(14) -¶ `everybody gets up in the morning`.
» -¶ ± `I got everything `;
-¶ ± `I lost everything`.

(15) ¶ `a great deal` [also used as an Adverb.

(c)]: -¶ `Ram knows a great deal`.

(16) ¶ ¶ `somewhat`, `a little` [Adj. or Adv.
» ¶-¶ ® `I have a little feer`.

`someone else, anybody else`:
, `It was not Mohan, it was someone else`;
© ? `is there anybody else?` =
`nobody else came`. = `he is somebody else`. ¶ `something else`, `a little more`: ¶ ¦ `please take a little more`.
¶ `tell us something else`. ¶ `something else`:
» ¶ µ¦ `I need nothing else`.
¶? ` (do you want etc.) anything else?` ¶.....¶ `some....some` [Conjunctive. [See:- , , ± or `but`, or `but also, besides, but, on the other hand`;
¶ ± , ()
`I have done no charm to you; on the other hand, I have rendered you a service`.
`but` is now obsolete.]: - See:- with and denotes `any one` and `which one`, respectively: - `any book`, - `which book?`- which persons?`:
- µ± `which (Plural) of you will accompany me?`
(- is usually Singular in form, but Plural in sense. Sometimes - has the Plural form). ©-© `which things?`, `what things?`:
©-© ¦ ? `what things has brother brought of situation, usually for the worse. ©--© denotes unexpected and abruptchange of situation, usually for the worse. ©.....© is adverbial and denotes, equally, without difference or distinction. It has a conjunctive force.
© , © , ® `you and he are both (equally) fools`.
© , © , ± `whether rich or poor, all will pass away`. All Pronouns, Singular or Plural, Direct or Oblique, may be combined with the emphatic particle :
`I myself`, `thou thyself`
`you yourself (honorific)», `hardly any one`,
¶ `hardly something, hardly a few`

Most of these compounds, however, are affected by Sandhi [50 (c) and 9 (d)] and are slightly modifed:

» + = », » + = », + = (), += (), + = , + = ,
+ = , + = , + = ,
+ = , + = (), + = (), + = (), + = ().

Note that:-

and serve as Singular and Plural obliques of . The nasalized forms , etc. are used only in pronounciation. They are written without the dot.

Miscellaneous Pronouns: `so and so`:

(2) `several, a lot, a good many`:

- ® `I have seen a lot like you!`

( or ) `each other, one another, among themselves`.

`do not quarrel with each other.`
`mutual, internal`.

(4) `mutually (adverb)».

(5) ¦- `each other, one another`:
¦- `do not beat each other`.
¦- `do not fight (or qurrel) with each other`.

¦.... ( or ) `one....the other` or `some....others`.

They have conjunctive force:
¦ ® , ® `one is happy, the other is unhappy`;
¦ , `one is rich, the other is poor`.

(7) , `so and so`:
`call so and so`.

The or forms of Pronouns, when referring to the subject of the senternce, are always replaced by the reflexive . See:- (d) `belonging to oneself`, `one`s own`, is, in fact, an Adjective derived from , and is used (like the forms: 101 Note) as such (with its modifications and ) provided the person it refers to is the logical subject of the sentence.

± `the boy asks for his book`;

`the boy told his mother,»

(not ) `Ram reads his lesson`.
(not ) `The boy tore up his book`.
(not ) `He told his brother`.
(not ) `I am going home`.
(not ) `You do your work`.
(not ) ± `He found his book`.
(not ) Ram has to read his lesson.`
(not ) µ `he came to know from his brother`.
But `his brother told him` where is not the subject but the object.

Note the difference-

`I met him at my house`. (Subject )
`I met him at his house`. (Subject )
» `he met me at his house`. (Subject )
» `he met me at my house`. (Subject )

(For further discussion, see:- (reflexive, like , , , etc.) is an Adjective. It replaces the latter in every case where they refer to the logical subject of the sentence (``the doer``), whether it (the subject) is in the Direct Case, or in the Oblique Case with , or (in Passive Voice), or with (266-70).

In the direct case and oblique with , the logical subject is identical with the grammatical: , :

A logical subject in the oblique with or is not the grammatical subject-that position is occupied by the logical object:

» (») µ¶ ± ,

» .

In all the four sentences, has replaced because (the person referred to by ) is the logical subject in all the four.

But in a sentence like » , cannot be replaced by because is the subject here and not .

See:- is sometimes used for denoting (or )=+ (or ) in such sentences as:-

`this house is ours (yours and mine)», where the person spoken to is included in either, as a matter of fact,or out of friendliness or humility on the part of the speaker (the house actually belonging to the speaker alone).

A further extension of the ``friendliness or humility`` is achieved by saying for .).

However, is used as an intensifying Adjective (=own) qualifying the or forms which it invariably follows: Ram`s own house,» `my own book`, `your own clothes` etc.

As in the case of certain Nouns (see:- The word ± meaning `people`, is sometimes appended to such Masculine Nouns as do not modify in Plural. The signification is that of plurality. but usually, `as a class`: ± `kings` (as a class), ± `the Aryans` (as a class), ± `saints, mendicants` (as a class) The compound ( ± etc.) thus formed is treated as a single word, the element (, , etc.) remaining unchanged, and only ± taking case-forms, etc.), the word ± is attached to a plural Pronoun for defining emphasizing plurality: ±, ±, ±, ±, ±, ±, ± etc.

In oblique forms, , and are not affected while , etc. change to , etc. The case signs are attached to ± only which change to ±, ± , ± , ± etc.

The word is similarly used for denoting plurality: , , , , etc.

The case-signs etc. are tagged on to the Pronouns, (95-Note) but not ( , ).

CHAPTER XIX

An Adjective is a word which qualifies a Noun, a Pronoun or an Adjective:

µ¶ `a good boy` `a bad man`
`a black cat` `cold water`
`a sick girl` `this book`
`that house` `my sister`
`our city` `much milk`
µ `five rupees` - `which book`
- `many men` ± `several people`
± `deep blue sky` µ¶ `very good man`.

Some Adjectives denote a quality (µ¶, , ); some state number (µ), quantity (); some describe state or condition (, ); some only point out (, ); others particularize or show relation (, ); still others ask question (-) etc., etc. Broadly speaking, Adjectives can be divided into two classes describing and distinguishing, i.e. those which merely indicate a quality, and those which point out a person or a thing as distinct from others of their own class. Thus , , , etc. merely describe, whereas , , , etc. point to thing and persons which are to be distinguished from other persons and things.

Almost all the Pronouns can function as Adjectives:

`this book`
µµ `those children` (Demonstrative);
? `which man?`
© `what work?` (Interrogative);
`some man`
¶ `some fruits` (Indefinite);
`the boys who` (Relative);

The oblique forms of Pronouns having , or namely, , , , , , , and (except in ) etc. are used always as Adjectives. In fact, the oblique forms of all Nouns with may also be considered as Possessive Adjective changes to- and-¦.

Note- is used also as an intensifying (or emphasizing) Adjective when it follows a Noun or Pronoun with or and means `own`. see:- The or forms of Pronouns, when referring to the subject of the senternce, are always replaced by the reflexive . See:- (d) `belonging to oneself`, `one`s own`, is, in fact, an Adjective derived from , and is used (like the forms: 101 Note) as such (with its modifications and ) provided the person it refers to is the logical subject of the sentence.

± `the boy asks for his book`;

`the boy told his mother,»

(not ) `Ram reads his lesson`.
(not ) `The boy tore up his book`.
(not ) `He told his brother`.
(not ) `I am going home`.
(not ) `You do your work`.
(not ) ± `He found his book`.
(not ) Ram has to read his lesson.`
(not ) µ `he came to know from his brother`.
But `his brother told him` where is not the subject but the object.

Note the difference-

`I met him at my house`. (Subject )
`I met him at his house`. (Subject )
» `he met me at his house`. (Subject )
» `he met me at my house`. (Subject )

(For further discussion, see

(reflexive, like , , , etc.) is an Adjective. It replaces the latter in every case where they refer to the logical subject of the sentence (``the doer``), whether it (the subject) is in the Direct Case, or in the Oblique Case with , or (in Passive Voice), or with (266-70).

In the direct case and oblique with , the logical subject is identical with the grammatical: , :

A logical subject in the oblique with or is not the grammatical subject-that position is occupied by the logical object:

» (») µ¶ ± ,

» .

In all the four sentences, has replaced because (the person referred to by ) is the logical subject in all the four.

But in a sentence like » , cannot be replaced by because is the subject here and not .

See is sometimes used for denoting (or )=+ (or ) in such sentences as:-

`this house is ours (yours and mine)», where the person spoken to is included in either, as a matter of fact,or out of friendliness or humility on the part of the speaker (the house actually belonging to the speaker alone).

A further extension of the ``friendliness or humility`` is achieved by saying for .).

However, is used as an intensifying Adjective (=own) qualifying the or forms which it invariably follows: Ram`s own house,» `my own book`, `your own clothes` etc.

(a) Adjectives ending in (including Possessive Adjectives change to when qualifiying a Feminine Nown in any case or number:

µ¶ `a good boy`, but µ¶ `a good girl`; µ¶ , µ¶ , µ¶ , similarly , , , etc.

The changes to ¦ when the Adjective is qualifying a Masculine Noun either in the oblique form or in the Plural (Direct Oblique) : µ¶ , µ¶ `good boys`, µ¶ , , ` my brothers`, etc. A few A - Adjectives are excepted from this rule: `one and a quarter`, `of superior quality`, `of inferior quality`, `nice`, ® `unhappy, unfortunate`. All the other Adjectives ( `red`, `heavy` etc.) remain unchanged: (masc.) `red cloth`, , `red cloths`, `red sari`. Case-signs are attached only to the Nouns, the Adjective having only the oblique form: µ¶ , , , , © , ± but See:- Adjectives denoting quality, number and quantity may be used as Nouns, when they are affected by Case and Number in the same way as Nouns , ¶ , , ¦ , µ , , ¶ , ; used as a Noun denotes `a thing`, or person belonging to oneself, ¶., however, does not change: ¶ (Plural).

(a) attached to the oblique form of a Noun or a Pronoun denotes `like`, which then functions as an Adjective :

±- cow-like`, - `dog-like`, »- `me-like`, - `you-like`,

- `them-like`.

The of these Adjectives changes in the oblique and the Feminine like ordinary -Adjectives.

(b) is attached also to an Adjective and

either denotes `looking, seeming`:

- `red-looking`, ¤µ-
±- `mad-looking`, -
- `weak-looking`, ±- `fair-looking`.

or (ii) intensifies when used with quantitative Adjectives:

- `a great deal`, - `just a little`.

¦- denotes `similar`.

These Adjectives when qualifying a Noun in Plural or in the oblique form or a Feminine Noun (Singular or Plural, Direct or Oblique) change both the elements in accordance with the general rule. See:- (a) attached to the oblique form of a Noun or a Pronoun denotes `like`, which then functions as an Adjective :

±- cow-like`, - `dog-like`, »- `me-like`, - `you-like`,

- `them-like`.

The of these Adjectives changes in the oblique and the Feminine like ordinary -Adjectives.

is also added to the or or forms for denoting similarity if quality, possession etc.:

- `a face like that of a monkey`,
± - `a voice like that of an ass`.
- `clothes similar to his`,
- `a nose like mine`,
- ± `was abashed`.

Note that both ,, and are affected by Gender, Number and Case.

with and denotes `any one` and `which one`, respectively: - `any book`, - `which book?` with and denotes `any one` and `which one`, respectively: - `any book`, - `which book?` `Degree of qualities etc. are usually denoted with the help of the Case-sign attached to the Noun or Pronoun (in oblique form) with which comparison is made. See:- The Indirect Objects (which are usually persons) of the Verbs meaning `to tell, say, ask for, beg, demand, claim, request`:

........`brother told Ram that.........`;
.........`Kanta said to mother..........`;
¶..........`I asked the boy...........`;
» ± ....`the servant asks me for a rupee`.

¶ `younger than Ram`,
µ `higher than all, highest`,

is similarly used (in the ``selective`` sense) for denoting superiority of one out of two or more. See Manner: -

`listen with attention (attentively)»;
± `you will be able to read (it) with ease (easily)»;
`he was able to come wih some difficulty`.

`bigger of the two`,
µ¶, also µ¶ `best of all`.

In literarry Hindi, the phrase may be substitued for .

¶ `younger as compared to Ram`.

The words or `more` and `less` may be prefixed to Adjectives for denoting comparison :

() ¤ `more (less) durable than iron`,
`more delicate than flower`.
, and can also be used independently for denoting `more` or `less` in number or in quantity:
() `more (less) than ten`; ¦ () `more (less) than a maund`.
-- `at least` and -- `at the most` are used as Adverbs for which se App. III 5 (i).
`superior to` and `inferior to` are similarly used.

Adjectives denoting quality, number and quantity may be used as Nouns, when they are affected by Case and Number in the same way as Nouns , ¶ , , ¦ , µ , , ¶ , ; used as a Noun denotes `a thing`, or person belonging to oneself, ¶., however, does not change: ¶ (Plural). (a) Two sets of Adjectives derived from pronouns may particularly be noted- denoting quality ¦ `of this kind` (from ), `of that kind` (from ), `of what kind` (from -©), `of which kind` (Relative from ), `of that kind` (from , archaic). Compare forms.

(ii) denoting quantity -

`this much` (from ),
`that much` (from ),
`how much` (from©),
`as much (Relative from ).

The Plurals of etc. may denote Number: `so many men`, `how many books?`, `how many fruits?`

All these are affected by Gender and Case like -ending Adjectives, and may be used also as Nouns. (for corresponding Adverbs, see :- The pronominal Adverbs, like the pronominal Adjectives (137) are derived from Demonstrative, Relative and Interrogative Pronouns. These are:- `now`, `here`, `hither`, `thus` (from ); - - `there`, `thither`, (from ); `when`, `where`, `whither`, `as` (from ); `when?`, `where`, `whither?`, © `why?` from (); `then`, `there`, `thither`, `so, in the same way` (from ). and (except in proverbs) are archaic or dialectic and as such should not be used. The other two Adverbs derived from [ the archaic correlative Pronoun 110 (iii), viz. and ] are affiliated to (so that the second series in the above list would be , ). Note that © does not mean `how`. The word for `how` is (287), or © (µµ 285-1).

Of the Pronominal adverbs listed above:

(a) , , and are Adverbs of Time;
(b) , and are Adverbs of Place;
(c) , , and are Adverbs of Direction;
(d) , , © () and are Adverbs of Manner

The Present and Past Participles (See :-Participles are verbal adjectives qualifying noun (or pronoun) but retaining some properties of verbs. Hindi has two kinds of Participles, Present and Past.

(a) Formation of Present and Past Participles has already been explained in 185 and 195:

etc. are Present Participles.

etc. are Past Participles.

Both the Participles are affected by the Gender, the Number, and the Case of the Nouns or Pronouns which they qualify. µ, µ are Masc. sg., µ, µ; Masc. pl., µ and µ Fem. sg. or pl. The oblique forms for Masc. sg. and pl. is also µ, µ; Fem. forms remain unchanged in the oblique.) are Adjectives, derived from verbs: `flowing water`, `past days`. Adjectives may, of course, be used as parts of Predicate and undergo the usual changes the usual changes due to Gender, Number and Case:

± ® `stop the carriage.`
µ¶ `the boys are good`,

But if an Adjective is used as a predicative word referring to an object which has , it (the Adjective) remains unchanged. See :- The Object of a Verb in the neutral Construction (174 (c)];

® `Ram saw the boy`,
`the brother called the sister`;
± `the stones were thrown away`;
± ¦ `let these houses be demolished`. and

The Object of a Verb requiring a predicative word (referring to the object):

`he regards poverty as a sin`;
± `do not make the books dirty`;
» `he takes the rope to be a snake`.

± ® `stop the carriage`,
± `paint the wood black`;
± `do not make the books dirty`.

The words , , , , , etc. prefixed to an Adjective (of quality) denote `very, extremely`:

`very cruel`, :® `extremely painful`, `extremely` beautiful`, ¶ `very small, or young`, `very heavy`, `extremely fearful`:

`very cruel`, :® `extremely painful`, `extremely` beautiful`, ¶ `very small, or young`, `very heavy`, `extremely fearful`.

The Sanskrit comparative and superlative endings and are usually attached to only Tatsama Adjectives for denoting more, very, extremely, highly etc.

`more difficult`, `very dear, dearest, darling`.

CHAPTER XX

Numerals are Adjectives indicating Number. They may be Cardinal, Ordinal, or Multiplicative.

Cardinals are used for counting : ¦ `one fruit`, `two horses`, `three books,» `a hundred men`.

Ordinals are used for denoting `position or order in a series`. `the first lesson`, `the second book`, `the thrid house`.

Multiplicatives indicate multiplication : ± `double`, `two-fold`, ± `ten-fold`, ± `hundred-fold`.

The Hindi Cardinals are as follows :

¦ one two
three µ four
µ five ¶: six
seven eight
nine ten
± eleven twelve
thirteen µ fourteen
fifteen sixteen
seventeen eighteen
nineteen twenty
© twenty-one twenty-two
twenty-three µ twenty-four
twenty-seven twenty-eight
() twenty-nine thirty
thirty-one thirty-two
thirty-three µ thirty-four
thirty-five ¶ thirty-six
thirty-seven thirty-eight
thirty-nine µ forty
forty-one forty-two
forty-three µ forty-four
forty-five ¶ forty-six
forty-seven forty-eight
µ forty-nine µ fifty
© fifty-one fifty-two
() fifty-three µ fifty-four
µ fifty-five ¶ fifty-six
fifty-seven fifty-eight
fifty-nine sixty
sixty-one sixty-two
() sixty-three µ sixty-four
sixty-five ¶ sixty-six
sixty-seven sixty-eight
sixty-nine seventy
seventy-one seventy-two
seventy-three µ seventy-four
µ (-) seventy-five ¶ seventy-six
() seventy-seven seventy-eight
() seventy-nine eighty
© eighty-one eighty-two
eighty-three µ eighty-four
µ eighty-five ¶ eighty-six
eighty-seven eighty-eight
eighty-nine ninety
© ninety-one ninety -two
ninety -three µ ninety-four
µ ninety-five ¶ ninety-six
ninety-seven () ninety-eigh
ninety-nine hundre
zero (¦) (one)hundred
two hundred thousand
® hundred thousand ® million
ten million thousand million
® hundred billion

(i) ¶: `six` is also written as ¶. However, ¶ or ¶ approximates the current Hindi pronunciation of the word.

Above `hundred`, the numbers proceed regularly:

¦ ¦ 101, ¦ 102,

µ 304 µ µµ 5225 etc.

Note:- There is no change in the form of the above numerals due to Gender or Case. As for Number, obviously, ¦ is Singular and the rest are Plural by nature,

(a) Nouns denoting measure, weight etc., when preceded by a numeral or by an Adjective denoting indefinite number: (153), are used as Adjectives (of quantity) :

± `two yards of cloth`;
`three maunds of grain`;
¦ ± `a cart-load of fuel`;
`several seers of milk`;
¦ ± `a glass of water`,
µ `two cups of tea`.

See:- (a) Masculine Nouns signifying duration attach the special ending- for denoting a large but indefinite Number : `year` `several years`; `month` `several months`. This is really a numerical ending.

All the modifications that a Noun undergoes with regared to Number and Case (Direct or Oblique) can be tabulated as follows -

DIRECT OBLIQUE

Sg. Pl Sg. Pl.

1. Masc. - Nouns -- ¦- ¦-
2. Masc. -.other nouns -- -- -- ««
3. Fem,-, and Nouns -- - -- ««
4. Fem.-.other Nouns -- ¦- -- ««

or thus:-

SINGULAR PLURAL

Direct Oblique Direct Oblique

1. Masc.- Nouns --.. ¦ ¦.. ..
2. Masc.-other Nouns --.. -.. .. ««
3. Fem,-, and Nouns --.. -.. .. ««
4. Fem.-.other Nouns --.. -.. ¦ ««

See:

A large but indefinite number is denoted by `tens`, `twenties, scores`, µµ, µ, , , ®, , (but , µ etc. are not used).

These forms which may be called `Multitudinous`, are not affected by Gender and Case. Notice the difference between and , and etc. denotes `several tens`, denotes `all twenty`, denotes `several scores`.

Nouns signifying duration, and those signifying measure, weight etc. assume similar forms when a large and indefinite number or quantity is denoted (83). This may be regarded as the obliquePlural sign used for the direct Plural (93).

±¦ `a number of months passed`.
± `a number of years elapsed`.
`maunds and maunds of milk`,
± `cart-loads of grain`,
`basketfuls of fruits`,
, ± and are, obviously, adjectival.

But all these Nouns can have only the direct Plural form when preceded by a numeral or by an Adjective denoting an indefinite number. Thus , . Nouns denoting measure etc., when preceded by a numeral, from their Plural in accordance with 145-b: , ± etc.

Nouns denoting measure, weight etc. similarly attach for expressing a large but indefinite quantity: `maunds and maunds of grain`; `heaps and heaps of fruits`; ± `cartloads of firewood`, etc. , etc. are in such cases, used as Adjectives (156).

It is to be noted that in the Singular Oblique forms, there is only one change - to ¦, occurring in Masc. In the Plural, all Oblique forms have . The Direct Plural has [ in Fem. , and Nouns, -¦ (in the remaining Fem.)]. See, however, 83 where, as a special case, is iattached for forming an apparently Direct Plural.

The Positions or Case-Signs are treated in Chapter VI.

See:

A numeral + a noun denoting measure, weight etc. is treated as an Adjective also as regards the change of form due to Number and Case (but not Gender). Thus,

`two cups of milk`, `three basketfuls of mangoes`, (: Masc. Pl. and : Masc. Pl. like µ¶: Masc. Pl. like µ¶: Masc. Pl. (127-b); but , ± (like µ¶ Fem. Plural:127-b, not , ± like ). Also, (not.... ....), (not ........): like µ¶ Masc. Pl. in the oblique. However, when collective sense is intended, the Nouns retain the singular form: , etc.

A numeral + a noun denoting measure, weight etc. is treated as an Adjective also as regards the change of form due to Number and Case (but not Gender). Thus,

`two cups of milk`, `three basketfuls of mangoes`, (: Masc. Pl. and : Masc. Pl. like µ¶: Masc. Pl. like µ¶: Masc. Pl. (127-b); but , ± (like µ¶ Fem. Plural:127-b, not , ± like ). Also, (not.... ....), (not ........): like µ¶ Masc. Pl. in the oblique. However, when collective sense is intended, the Nouns retain the singular form: , etc.

Some of the regular numerals are replaced by Collective Adjectives (which are, in fact, Nouns of the same type as those referred to in 145 above). Thus or `pair`=, µ = µ, = µ, ¶© = ¶, = dozen = , or ==`score; = . These are treated as Nouns and may be qualified by the regular numerals: (or ) `two pairs` = four, µ `three fours` = 12, µ `five dozens` = 60, `ten scores` = 200, etc.

is also used in the sense of `per hundred` or `per cent`: `mangoes are sold at ten Rupees per hundred`, `interest at three Rupees per cent`.Note:- In accordance with 145 (b), , µ and (which are Masc.) may or may not change to , µ, and in the plural. and ¶©, however, change regularly to and ¶©. , and being Feminine, remain unchanged.

Fractions are expressed as follows :-

1/4 = ¦ µ (one divided by four).or (used mainly for denoting weights):
() = 1/4 seer,
or µ (or µ ± `quarter`).
1/3 = ¦ or (or ±) `one-third`.
1/2 = ¦ or `half`.
3/4 = µ or `three quarters`.
1/5 = ¦ µ or µ ± `a fifth`.
1/4 = ¦ ¦ µ or `one and a quarter`.
1/2 = ¦ ¦ or `one and a half`.
1/2 = ¦ or `two and a half`.
3/4 = ¦ µ or `two less by a quarter`.
3/4 = µ or `three less by a quarter`.
1/4 = ¦ µ or `two and a quarter`.
....`and a half` is attached to three, four and above.
`three and a half`, µ `four and a half` etc
The system of denoting fractions is used also in denoting fractions of hundred, thousasnd, ten thousand, ten million and thousand million. Thus,
= 125 (literally `a hundred and its quarter`),
= 150 (`a hundred and its half`), = 250
(`two hundred + half a hundread`), = 1,500,
® = 2,25,000, = 2,50,00,000,
µ = 4,500.

, ±± or : placed before a numeral or ¦ placed after it denotes approximation:
µ (µ) `about fifty persons` [111 (iii)and 287 (d)]
±± µ `a crowd of about five hundred`,
: ¦ `about two hundred years ago`,
µ (µ) ¦ `about forty boys have come`,
Certain pairs of numerals also denote approximation (App. III 5-C) :

-¦ `one or two`, -, -µ, µ-µ, µ-¶: etc.
-µ, -, -, -µµ, -, -, -µ-, µ-µ, µ-µ, µ-.
--, - , - , , - .

and ¦ both meaning `lonely, single`, and meaning `not alone, not lonely, companioned (by one person)» are noteworthy.

, and are affected by Gender, Number and Case like ordinary -ending Adjectives:

, , , , , etc.

¦ has ¦ in Feminine. changes to in Plural and Oblique.

The following Adjectives denote indefinite number:

¶ `some, a few` (also quantity `a little`) (111-ii).
`many, a large number` (also quantity `much, a great deal`).
- `a good many, several`.See:- intensifies when used with quantitative Adjectives:
- `a great deal, - `just a little, `a few`.
- `only a few`. See:- intensifies when used with quantitative Adjectives:
- `a great deal, - `just a little,
`many, several`.
¦ `several`.
`all`,
`all` (emphatic).
`all`.
`more, additional`.

A numeral repeated denotes `...........at a time` or `........per piece, per head, per day` etc.:

- `let two boys come at a time`.
¦ ¦ - `give three fruits to each boy`.
¦-¦ - `mangoes are selling two annas a piece`.
But ¦-¦ means also `all, every one, each one`:
¦-¦ ® ± `I will see each one (of you)!,

attached to a numeral denotes aggregation. In case of , instead of is attached:

both
all the three
µ all the four
µ all the five
¶ all the six
all the seven
all the eight
all the nine
all the ten
all the twenty
all the thirty.

These are not Plurals, but `aggregatives`.
These forms are not affected by Gender and Case:

, , , etc.

A large but indefinite number is denoted by `tens`, `twenties, scores`, µµ, µ, , , ®, , (but , µ etc. are not used).

These forms which may be called `Multitudinous`, are not affected by Gender and Case. Notice the difference between and , and etc. denotes `several tens`, denotes `all twenty`, denotes `several scores`.

Nouns signifying duration, and those signifying measure, weight etc. assume similar forms when a large and indefinite number or quantity is denoted (83). This may be regarded as the obliquePlural sign used for the direct Plural (93).

±¦ `a number of months passed`.
± `a number of years elapsed`.
`maunds and maunds of milk`,
± `cart-loads of grain`,
`basketfuls of fruits`,
, ± and are, obviously, adjectival.

But all these Nouns can have only the direct Plural form when preceded by a numeral or by an Adjective denoting an indefinite number. Thus , . Nouns denoting measure etc., when preceded by a numeral, from their Plural in accordance with 145-b: , ± etc.

Ordinals: The first nine ordinals are -
`first`, `second`,
`third`, µ `fourth`,
µ `fifth`, ¶ `sixth`,
`seventh` `eithth`,
`ninth`, `tenth`,
± `eleventh`, `twelfth`,
`twentieth`, © `twenty-first`,
µ `fiftieth`, `hundredth`.

From seven onwards is added to numerals.
These are affected by Gender, Number and Case like ordinary

-ending Adjectives :
, , µ, µ etc.
They can be used as Pronouns:
`another, besides, the second`,
`the third.`

The Sanskrit ordinals `first`, `second`, `third` etc. are also in use, particularly in literary Hindi: `first division`, µ `fourth class` (in a school), µ¶ `the thirteenth chapter` etc.

Both Sanskrit and Hindi ordinals are in use for denoting the dates of each half of the month (according to the Indian calendar).

The dates of the bright half of the month are referred to by prefixing the word © or by appending the word to the numeral. For referring to dates of the dark half, the word is prefixed, or the word appended.

The first of each half is (Skt.) or , , (Hindi). The fifteenth of the dark half (i.e. the new-moon day) is or (Skt. ) and of the bright half (i.e. the full-moon day) is , (Skt.) or . The remaining thirteen days of each half are named as follows:-

Sanskrit Hindi

2nd ,
3rd
5th µ µ
6th ¶
7th
8th
9th
10th
11th ¦ ¦
12th
13th
14th µ µ

Some of tthe Hindi names given above are only used in certain area and in others µ, , , etc. are prevalent.

Dates of the months according to the Western calendar are denoted by the regular Feminine forms of the Hindi ordinal: , , etc. These are, of course, Adjectives qualifyingthe Noun ® `date` which may be implied or expressed.

denotes also `foremost` or `most important`. With reference to `age` or `era`, it may denote `by-gone` or `early`: ± (or ) `in the early (or by-gone) age`.

For denoting relative ages of brothers, sisters etc., the following Adjectives are inuse () `the eldest`, » (») `second` (only in some Hindi areas), » (») `the third`, ¶ (¶) `the youngest`.

For denoting relative sizes, the following Adjectives are in use: `big`, » or » `middling`, ¶ `small`,

For denoting position etc. the following Adjectives are used:

± `fore, front`, ¶ `back, hind`, µ `middle, intermediate`

`last`, ® `last, final`.

Multiplicatives are formed by attaching ± (`multiplied by`) to the numerals. The numerals 2 to 8 are slightly modified: ±, ± or `double`, ± `three-fold`, µ± `five -fold`, ¶± `six -fold`, ± `seven-fold`, ± `eight-fold`. After ± the forms are regular. ± `nine-fold`, ± `ten-fold`, ± `hundred-fold`.

These changes are like ordinary -ending Adjectives in Feminine, Plural and oblique: ±, ± etc.

± may be attached also to fractions (more than one):

± = 1 1/4 times as much.
± = 1 1/2 times as much.
± = 2 1/2 times as much.

`single, not double or multiple, lean`, `two-fold, stout`, and , `treble, three-fold`, µ `quadruple, four-fold`, `1 1/4 times as much` and ` one half as much`, are special forms. See:- See:- `single, not double or multiple, lean`, `two-fold, stout`, and , `treble, three-fold`, µ `quadruple, four-fold`, `1 1/4 times as much` and ` one half as much`, are special forms.

The pronominal Adjectives , , etc., when used in plural, may denote indefinite number.

See:- `this much` (from ),
`that much` (from ),
`how much` (from©),
`as much (Relative from ).

In numeration, units = , tens = ,
hundreds=, thousands = etc.

The words and prefixed to a numeral denote `per`: () `per hundred`, () `per thousand`. But (+¦) or ( + ¦) `everyone`.

(For weights, measures, names of days and months etc., see AppendixIV-3-8).

¦ signifies also `a certain`: ¦ `one dya`, ¦ `once upon a time`, ¦ `a certain man`.

CHAPTER XXI

Besides the above, there are also other Verbs which help in forming certainVoices, Moods andTenses of all the Verbs See :

Each Hindi Verb has a number of forms for signifying--

(1) the type or the character of the action denoted by the Verb (Terminate, Progressive, Habitual etc.);
(2) the relation of the subject to the action (acting or acted upon)
(3) the way in which the action etc. is thought of the expressed by the speaker (as a fact, a question, a command, a possibility etc); (4) the time at which the action is thought of as taking place (present, past, future etc); and
(5) the Person, Number and Gender of the subject, or of the object. Each of these is briefly discussed below.

In Hindi, a Verb is modified according to the gender number and person of either the subject, or the object, or it has reference only to the action. This gave rise to what are known as constructions.

Hindi Verbs had three constructions:- Subjectival, Objectival Nautral

(a) In subjectival construction, the Verb has the same Number, Person and Gender as its logical object (the person or thing to whom the action is directed):

«the boy read the book`,
®¦ «kamala ate fruits`.
± «the lion will be killed`,
» µ «I can`t take tea`,
«It is said. . . . . `.

(c) In Neutral Construction, the Verb agrees neither with the subject, nor with the object as regard Number, Person and Gender, but is always placed in the third person singular masculine form.

¶ «he sneezed`,
® «the boys saw the lions`,
¦± «the maid-servant will be called`,
µ, ¦ «come, let us go to sleep`

These are called Auxiliary Verbs or merely Auxiliaries. Hindi has only three Auxiliaries:

(1) `to be`, with its several forms.
(2) `was` (which is regarded as the past form of ), and (3) `to go` with its various forms.

Each Hindi Verb has a number of forms for signifying--

(1) the type or the character of the action denoted by the Verb (Terminate, Progressive, Habitual etc.);
(2) the relation of the subject to the action (acting or acted upon)
(3) the way in which the action etc. is thought of the expressed by the speaker (as a fact, a question, a command, a possibility etc); (4) the time at which the action is thought of as taking place (present, past, future etc); and
(5) the Person, Number and Gender of the subject, or of the object. Each of these is briefly discussed below.

ASPECT

(a) The forms of a Verb indicating the type of the character of the action etc. denoted by it are called Aspect.

(b) Hindi Verbs have numerous `Aspects`, such as Terminate, Progressive, Iterative, Intensive, Effective, Inceptive etc. All the Aspects (i.e. Verb-forms denoting nature of action), except the Terminate, are made by combining the main Verb with various subsidiary Verbs.

(c) The two most important Aspects are the Terminate and Progressive.

(1) The Terminate Aspect represents the act as a whole, as a fact. It isa statement of fact, the action beingthought of as a whole, not as continuing.

It has two quite different meanings. It expresses a general or a particular fact: «Lead sinks` (general fact). «I see him coming` (particular act) (Curme).

(2) The Progressive Aspectrepresents the action as progressing, proceeding, hence as not ended. «He is working in the garden`, «several books are lying in the table` (Curme). The action in the above sentences is represented as actually going on.

(d) The Terminate forms are the common, simple forms of Verb as explained in the following chapters. The progressive forms are made with the help of the subsidiary Verb `to continue `. .

VOICE

The forms of a Verb indicating the relations of the subject to the action etc. (denoted by the Verb) are called voices. Hindi has three voices active, passive and impersonal.

(a) The active voice indicates that the subjects does something is, or is becoming something. Thus, in the active voice the grammatical subject («that about which something has been said`) is also the logical subject-- the `doer` «Ram goes`, ± `the leaf fell`, `the boy is ill`, ± `she will read`, » `he called me`, ® `I saw Ram`,

`Ram`, «leaf`, `Boy`, `she`, `he`, and `I` are the grammatical subjects. The sentences say something about them. They are also the logical subject-- the doers of the act denoted by the Verbs. (For see *

is attached to the Subject of a Transitive Verb when it is used in the Past (Participle) form:

® `the boy ate the fruit`;
`Ram read the book`;
± `the cows gave milk`;
± ®µ `the horses pulled the carriage`;
® `the brother has written a letter`;
® `the girl had cokked the food`;

But the Subject of an Intransitive Verb in the past has the direct form:

`the boy came`;
`the horse ran`;
± ± `the cows went`.

Exceptions:-

A few Transitive Verbs like `to bring,» `to forget`, `to speak`, do not take the Subject with ; while with » `to understand` and `to chatter`, is optional. See :

`the boy brought the book`;
`the sisters brought fruits`;
`he said`;
» `I understood`;
» `I did not understand what you said`.)

(b) The Passive Voice represents the subject as acted upon. Thus, in the Passive Voice, the grammatical subject is not the logical subject the doer, but the logical object-- the person or thing towards whom the action is directed.

± The enemy was killed`,
» ± I was called,
It is said that. . . . .`,

`enemy`, » «I` and `It` are the grammatical subjects: something has been said about them. They are, however, not the logical subjects-- the doers of killed called, and said. On the other hand, they are the logical objects : the actions of `killing`, «calling`, and `saying` are directed towards them. The logical subjects are not mentioned in the above sentences. They may be guessed from the context («the enemy was killed by us`), or, it may be necessary to mention them («it is said-- unnecessary to say, by whom), sometimes, however, the logical subject is mentioned-- always in the oblique form with (* 98.a),

» µ «I cannot take tea` (literally tea cannot be taken by me)

Note: The passive voice is naturally restricted to transitive Verbs.

(c) The impersonal voice is restricted to Intransitive Verbs. It has either no subject at all. In which case the action denoted by the verbs serves as the subject; or, if there is a subject, it (the subject) is represented as able or unable to do something (i.e. the action denoted by the Verb) and has the oblique form with (* 98-a)

The Impersonal Voice is always in the Neutral Construction. See:

(c) In Neutral Construction, the Verb agrees neither with the subject, nor with the object as regard Number, Person and Gender, but is always placed in the third person singular masculine form.

¶ «he sneezed`,
® «the boys saw the lions`,
¦± «the maid-servant will be called`,
µ, ¦ «come, let us go to sleep`

µ, ¦ «come let us now go to sleep` (Literally, come let it be slept`).

µ ¦± ? «will you be able to walk ?, (Literally, «can (will) it be walked by you ?).

» «I am unable to get up`, (Literally, «it cannot be got up (arisen) by me`).

The first sentence has no subject. The action (sleeping) itself, in a way, is the subject (about which something has been said). In the other two sentences, the subjects and » are mentioned as `able to walk` and `unable to get up`, and have .

The Impersonal Voice is, in fact, the Passive Voice used for Intransitive Verbs.

The Verb forms discussed in the following chapters are all Active. For Passive and impersonal forms.

MOOD

The form of the work indicating the manner of the action (whether it just happens, or is ordered to be done, or is dependent upon a condition etc.) are called moods.

Hindi has three moods--- Imperative, indicative and subjunctive.

(a) The imperative mood is a form of Verb expressive and action as a command, a request, a warning, prohibition etc. The subject is frequently omitted but can be easily guessed from both the context and the form of the work.

() `go` (thou) () don`t (you) ever go there, ¦ `please come`.

(b) The imperative mood is form of Verb which represents the action as a fact, or makes a query about it.

± `he went` © ¦± ? `will he go` ? ® `the boy is playing`.

(c) The subjunctive mood is a form of Verb, which represents the action as a desire, a hope, a possibility, a probability, a condition, a presumption etc.

It has four varieties :-

(i) Optative, expressing desire, demand, entreaty, requirement;

µ¦ ¦ «he ought to go home`
µ ¦ «I want that he should come`

(ii) Potential, expressing possibility;

, «he may have come`
«it may have rained somewhere`

(iii) Contingent, expressing a contrary-to-fact condition:-
± «he must be come`

TENSE

The forms of a Verb indicating the time of the action are called tenses.

Hindi has six tenses: present, past, future, present perfect, habitual past and past perfect.

(a) The present tense represent the act as now going on, or as habitual, repeated or characteristics or it expresses general truth.

«he is coming` (act going on- progressive)
«Ram studies in a school` (habitual)
«where do you leave ? (habitual)
± «Cows give milk` (Characteristic),
µ «two plus two make four` (general truth)

Note: The Verb in the first sentence has progressive aspect. The rest of the Verbs have terminate the aspect. See :

(a) The forms of a Verb indicating the type of the character of the action etc. denoted by it are called Aspect.

(b) Hindi Verbs have numerous `Aspects`, such as Terminate, Progressive, Iterative, Intensive, Effective, Inceptive etc. All the Aspects (i.e. Verb-forms denoting nature of action), except the Terminate, are made by combining the main Verb with various subsidiary Verbs.

(c) The two most important Aspects are the Terminate and Progressive.

(1) The Terminate Aspect represents the act as a whole, as a fact. It isa statement of fact, the action beingthought of as a whole, not as continuing.

It has two quite different meanings. It expresses a general or a particular fact: «Lead sinks` (general fact). «I see him coming` (particular act) (Curme).

(2) The Progressive Aspectrepresents the action as progressing, proceeding, hence as not ended. «He is working in the garden`, «several books are lying in the table` (Curme). The action in the above sentences is represented as actually going on.

(d) The Terminate forms are the common, simple forms of Verb as explained in the following chapters. The progressive forms are made with the help of the subsidiary Verb `to continue `. These are explained in Chapter XIII * 262.

(b) The past tense represent some (particular) act as going on, or as done, in the past.

«he was going` (going on progressive),
± «he went`, (done - terminate),
«I read the book` (done - terminate)

Note:- The (simple) past is not use with reference to an act habitually or regularly done in the past: for this habitual past is use. (See :

(e) Habitual past tense represents an act as habitually or regularly done in the past.

«He always spoke the truth`,
¦ «He went (used to go) to Bombay once every month`,

(c) The future tense `represents and action or state as yet to take place or to come` into being`.

¦± «Ram will come to-morrow`,
± ¤± «I will go to London next year`,

(d) The present perfect tense `represents a completed act the effect of which is still present`

«I have read this book`,
«My brother has come`,

(e) Habitual past tense represents an act as habitually or regularly done in the past.

«He always spoke the truth`,
¦ «He went (used to go) to Bombay once every month`,

Note:- Use of habitual past with reference to a particular act (done, or going on, in the past) is now archaic or colloquial, except with few verbs for which

(f) The past perfect tense represents a past action or state as completed act or before a certain past time (which may be expressed or implied):

¶ ± «I had gone to Bombay (last year)»,
«He had come this morning`,

The tenses are treated in detailed in the following chapters:

CONSTRUCTION

In Hindi, a Verb is modified according to the gender number and person of either the subject, or the object, or it has reference only to the action. This gave rise to what are known as constructions.

Hindi Verbs had three constructions:- Subjectival, Objectival Nautral

(a) In subjectival construction, the Verb has the same Number, Person and Gender as its logical object (the person or thing to whom the action is directed):

«the boy read the book`,
®¦ «kamala ate fruits`.
± «the lion will be killed`,
» µ «I can`t take tea`,
«It is said. . . . . `.

(c) In Neutral Construction, the Verb agrees neither with the subject, nor with the object as regard Number, Person and Gender, but is always placed in the third person singular masculine form.

¶ «he sneezed`,
® «the boys saw the lions`,
¦± «the maid-servant will be called`,
µ, ¦ «come, let us go to sleep`

Note:- (I) The active has all the three constructions, the Passive has only the Objectival and the Neutral, while the Impersonal has only the Neutral:

Active , ± (Subjectival)
® (Objectival)
Passive (Neutral)
± (Objectival)
Impersonal ± (Neutral)
» (Neutral)

(ii) In the Active voice, the Objectival and the Neutral constructions are possible only if the Verb has a past participle from (See Chapter XI).

175. The variousforms discussed above--Aspect, Voice, Mood, Tense and Construction--are not always independent of each other, or distinctly and individually recognizable in each Verb. A single Verb often represents severalForms. Thus, a Verb like µ .he goes has only two distinctive features,-- and . These represent mainly the Tense (Present), and the construction (Subjectivel: Masculine, Singular, Third Person). The Voice (Active), Aspect (Terminate) and Mood (Indicative) are indicated by the absence of the distinctive features of the otherForms (Passive or Impersonal Voices, Progressive Aspect, Imperative and subjunctive Mood). A Verb like () has several distinctive features: indicates Passive: indicates progressive Aspect, as well as objectival construction (Masculine, Singular, Third Person, agreeing with the object ); and together indicate the Present Indicative Tense.

(b) A Verb restricted by all the aboveForms is called Finite. There are besides the `Finite Verb`, other Verbs which are restricted one or two of theForms. Such for example, are the Infinitive (like µ, : Chapter X) and the Participles (like µ, µ : Chapter XI).

(c) A Root is the basic form of a Verb, which is modified into the various forms. µ is the root of µ , µ, µ±, µ etc.

(d) Roots are also capable of certain other modifications like ® `to see`, ® «to show` and ®to be seen.

CHAPTER XXII

(a) Of the three Voices referred to in 171, the Active (in its three constructions) is by far the most important. The forms (Imperative, Indicative and Subjunctive) discussed in this and the following chapters are all Active. The Passive and the Impersonal forms will be treated in Chapter XIV.

As for the Aspect (170) all the forms given in these chapters are to be taken as Terminate, unless otherwise stated. Aspects will be treated along with Compound Verbs (Chapter XIII). Of the three moods referred to in 172, the Imperative has the simplest formation. This will, therefore, be discussed first.

The Imperative Mood, as already stated (178), denotes command, request, warning, prohibition, entreaty etc. By its very nature, the Imperative cannot refer to the past: command or request is impossible with regared to a past action. The Imperative, therefore, is restricted to the Present and the Future Tenses.

(In fact, the Imperative cannot refer even to the present, since what the speaker wants done can take place only after he has spoken: it is neither going on, nor completed at the moment of speaking. Some Imperative forms, however, refer specifically to future - relatively distant future. It is mainly for distinguishing these forms from the ordinary forms that the Imperative is said to have a present form as well).

Since the Imperative denotes command, request etc., its proper domain is the second person. Indirect command request etc. made to a third person may be expressed by the subjunctive (optative) forms. See :-

(a) ¦ (third person sg.) represenst the action mainly as a desire, wish, command, requirement, purpose; but also as a condition (although not contrary to fact), a supposition, a possibility etc., almost always with an implied reference to future. This form may be called ``Optative``.

(b) The Optative forms have already been noted in connection with the Indicative Future forms (203). The forms for `come` would be:-
Singular Plural

For the roots µ and , the forms would be:-

Singular Plural Singular Plural

There is no modification due to Gender.

The Imperative forms of the present are made as follows:- In the second person singular, the bare root (with stress accent) is used:-

() `read (thou)»
() `come (thou)»
() `go (thou)» !

Note: These forms can be used only for God, servants, young children, in affection for mother, sister etc. or for expressing anger. See : is used in addressing God, children and, occasionally, very intimate friends. It may also be used in anger or to express disrespect or in fondly addressing one`s mother, sister, younger brother etc. (but seldom father, uncle and grandfather).

In the second person plural, - is appended to the root:-

() `read (you)»,
() `come (thou)»!
() `go (thou)»

Note: The root `to give` makes (not ). and `to take` makes (not ).

(ii) The alternative forms , (instead of , ) etc., occasionally met with, should be discarded.

(iii) The usage of second person plural form is similar to that of the second person plural pronoun .

With the second person honorific pronoun See. is the polite and respectful form of address for all, both in the singular and the plural. (it is occasionally used also for a person `spoken about`.)- ¦ is appended to the root.

() ¦ `please read`,
() ¦ `please come`,
() ¦ `please go`.

Note: (i) The following roots have exceptional forms in the honorific:

`to do` makes ¦ (besides ¦),
`to take` makes ¦,
`to give` makes ¦,
`to drink` makes ¦ |

But ¦ form `to be` is archaic and should be discarded. The correct form is ¦ which is rarely used.

¦, ¦ etc. are also written , etc. but the former are preferable. The honorific forms are used in the same way as the honorific Pronoun. See is the polite and respectful form of address for all, both in the singular and the plural. (it is occasionally used also for a person `spoken about`.)

(a) The Future forms of the Imperative, both Singular and Plural, are identical with the Infinitive forms of roots - µ, , , etc.

`thou should not go there`,
`you should not come in the evening`,
µ `you should come with me to-morrow`.

These forms usually imply advice or mild command. They are not used with the honorific pronoun, which has the optative form instead. See With the honorific pronoun, the Optatives may denote polite request or suggestion:

¦ `you had better not go there` (180-a).

The polite future Imperative is made by adding-ga to the honorfic forms:-

¦± `kindly come to-morrow`,
¦± `you had better not go there`,
» ¦± `you will kindly send me a letter`.

These forms are identical with, and have been taken over from the polite future forms. .

(a) An exceptionl (`Exclamatory`) Imperative, denoting emergency, danger, warning etc. is formed by adding - to the root:-

! ± ± ! `run (come quick)! Fire has broken out!,
µ ! ! `come quick ! A wolf is coming`.

These forms are used mainly in calling for help and are addressed to all persons within hearing. Their use as mere Future Imperatives is now archaic or dialectic.

(b) The - Imperatives may similarly be used to denote warning, emergency or informal request:-

¶ ! `don`t touch it! (it is hot, etc.)»,
! `catch hold! (of the thif etc.)»,
µ ! `get aside! (there`s a car behind you etc.)»
!`will you just get that pencil?` (informal request).

(a) The Present Imperative forms can, of course, be also used with reference to Future also:-

`You go there to-morrow`.
¦ `please come after ten days.`

(b) The so-called `Imperative` forms for the first and third persons are really subjunctive (optative). See :-

(a) ¦ (third person sg.) represenst the action mainly as a desire, wish, command, requirement, purpose; but also as a condition (although not contrary to fact), a supposition, a possibility etc., almost always with an implied reference to future. This form may be called ``Optative``.

(b) The Optative forms have already been noted in connection with the Indicative Future forms (203). The forms for `come` would be:-
Singular Plural

For the roots µ and , the forms would be:-

Singular Plural Singular Plural

There is no modification due to Gender.

The Present Imperative is sometimes called the `Direct Imperative` and the Future Imperative the `Indirect Imperative.` The negative (prohibitive) forms of the Imperative are made by placing a or immediately before the Verb. is more emphatic and less polite.

, ¦,

Note:- (i) The Active Imperative does not have the Objectival or the Neutral construction. All the forms treated above are Active And have the Subjectival construction, the Verbs agreeing with the Subjects in Number and Person. The Imperative forms are not affected by Gender.

(ii) For Passive and Impersonal forms,

For Progressive forms, see :

(a) as stated above (256-i 260 261-e and k) can be combined with a main Verb which is eighter in the asbsolutive (root) form, or in the present form or in the participle form: `he is going`, `he keeps going (habitually), `he keeps sitting`, `he keeps wearing a coat,

(b)of these, (1) alone dontes an action in progress or in process not yet complited. of the other three forms, (2) denotes a habit (not an action in progress), while (3) and (4) denote continuity of a state. Only (1), therefore, can form the progressive aspect.

It is to be noted that, while (2), (3) and (4) can be used in all Tenses and Moods ( ±, µ , , etc.) in the progressive sense, the Subsidiary is always in the past participle form (with the usual fem. and pl. modifications). Besides, it can be used only in the present and the habitual past ( - ) or in the Subjective forms , , ±, , , ±. In fact, is to be regarded as a past participle form of the compound + , and as equivalent to . This is clear from the fact that a present participle when used as an Adjective denotes the progressive aspect with the help of forms like , etc. (241).
It may also be noted that the rare progressive of the simple past (when used as future conditional) is . (322). It is evident from the above that Hindi Verbs have a regular progressive form only in those Tenses and Moods which are made with the help of a present participle. These are :-

( ) Present Indicative,
( ) Habitual Past-Indicative,
( ) Present Potential,
( ) Present Contingent,
± ( ±) Present Presumptive.

The forms in these Tenses are, of course, of the nature of a compound Verb. But having a special form and being so frequently used, they are on par with the common forms ( etc.).

CHAPTER XXIII

The Indicative forms of a Verb either represent the action etc. as a fact or make a query about it. These forms can be of any of the six Tenses, and of any Number, Person and Gender. In the Active Voice (which alone is being discussed here), they can have any of the three `construction`.

The Indicative Present is formed with the help of the Present Participl and the present forms of the Substantive Verb () :

µ `he moves`.

The Present Participal is an Adjective derived from a Verb, and is formed by appending to the bare root. Thus, the Present Participle of µ `move` is µ `moving`, of `come`, it is `coming`, of `go`, `going` etc.

Being an Adjective ending in - , the Present Perticiple is subject to the same modifications due to Number and Gender as an ordinary -Adjecive (127). µ etc. are Masculine Singlar in form and may, therefore, be used if the subject is Masc. and Sing. With a Feminine subject (singular or plural) µ etc. change to µ etc.; and with a Masc. plural subject to µ (also oblique) etc.

The Presen: forms of the Substantive Verb are as follows:-

First Person -singular plural
Second Person
Third Person

These are not affected by Gender.

188. Thus, the present Indicative forms of the root µ are as follows:-

with a Masculine subject:-

singular plural

First Person µ `I move`, µ `we move`.
Second Person µ `thou movest`, µ `you move`.
Third Person µ `he (or it) moves`, µ `they move`.

With a Feminine subject:-

singular Plural

1st person µ µ
2nd µ µ
3rd µ µ

Note: (i) AN oun-subject is always regarded as being in the Third Person.

Thes, `Ram goes`, `Sita goes`, `the boys come`, `the girls come`.

(ii) The honorific `you` is considered to be a Third Person plural Pronoun: `you go` (Fem. ).

The above forms have the Subjectival construction, sine the Verb agrees in Number, Person and Gender with the logical subject (`the doer`). In the Active Voice, the Present Indicative does not have the Objectival or the Neutral construction : the Verb must here always agree with the logical subject only. See:- (ii) In the Active voice, the Objectival and the Neutral constructions are possible only if the Verb has a past participle from

(a) As per the Aspect, the above forms are Terminate: they represent the act (`moving` etc.) as a whole, a fact,- not as progressing. The progressive aspect (`he is going`) is expressed with the help of the Auxiliary , , compounded with the main root. Thus:-

`he is going`,
µ `she is moving`,
`they are coming`.

The negative forms are made with the help of the particle placed immediately before the Verb. But in the negative sentence , , etc.

are, as a rule, omitted:
`he does not go`,

, `Ram does not study in a school, he studies at home. `

In asking questions, © is generally added to the sentence usually in the beginning, but may be omitted, if the interrogation is evident from the context or form the intonation. See:- Interrogative Pronouns are used in asking questions.

Hind has only two Interrogative Pronouns- and ©, the former usually referring tp `person` and the latter to `things` either in singular or in plural:

? `who is he?`;
© ? `what is this ?`;
? `who are they ?`;
© ? `what are these ?`

© is really a neuter form - a rare oceeurremce in Hindi.

© (frequently expressed but occasionally implied) is used for denoting the interrogative nature of a sentence (except when another interrogativ word is present (192 Note):

© ? `has he come?`;
(©) ± ? `has Ram gone to sleep?.

For further uses of © (as a Compound Pronoun),©-© `which things?`, `what things?
©-© ¦ ? `what things has brother brought of situation, usually for the worse. ©--© denotes unexpected and abruptchange of situation, usually for the worse. ©.....© is adverbial and denotes, equally, without difference or distinction. It has a conjunctive force.
© , © , ® `you and he are both (equally) fools`.
© , © , ± `whether rich or poor, all will pass away`.
and © may be used as a Relative Pronoun:
, `nobody knows who he is.`
± © `find out what he did yesterday.`
© is used as an Exclamatory Adjective for denoting the surprising or striking nature of some quality etc:
© () ! `what a lovely scene!`
© ± ! `what an idiotic person !`
© ! `what foolishness is this!`

© is also used as Adverb expressing emphatic negation:
© , `call him a man? he is a demon`;
µµ © , ± `it`s not a child, it`s a rose.`
© , `dose he run? he flies!`
« © ± `you will win the case? impossible!
Another Adverbial use of © is as a declarative, rhetorical in terrogative:
© ! `here lies your book! can`t you see?
© `am I not sitting here (don`t you see, I am sitting here)?`
The pair © ....© ©-© `which things?`, `what things?`:
©-© ¦ ? `what things has brother brought of situation, usually for the worse. is also adverbial (conjunctive) in sense.

© ? `does he go to the school?
© ? `does Sita study at home?

Note:- But if the sentence contains an Interrogative Pronoun (in any capacity) or an Interrogative Pronominal Adjective or Adverb, the additional © is omitted:

? `who lives here ? ( Subject)»,
© ? `what does he study ? (© Object)»,
µ ? `how much money does he want ?` ( Pronominal Adjective)»,
? `where does she live ? ( Pronominal Adverb)».

In the rest of the Tenses and Moods, © is used in the same manner.

The Terminate or - Present states a general or a particular fact:-

`Ram goes to school in the morning (every day)».
µ, `come on, mother calls (wants) you`.

The first sentence states a general fact; the second refers, obviously, to a particular occasion. However, it may not always be obvious whether a - from is referring to general or to a particular fact. In such cases, it becomes necessary to use the form which is more exolicit in its reference to a particular occasion. A sentence like » `he tells a lie` may mean either `he lies habitually`, or he is (on theis occasion) telling a lie`. If, therefore, the reference is to a particular occasion, » would be preferable. For denoting a continued action, the form is almost exclusively used:-

® `the boys are playing `.
`they are going`, etc.

CHAPTER XXIV

The Indicative Past is identical in form with the Past Participle of a Verb which, being an Adjective, is affected (like the Present Participle: 186) by the Number and Gender of the Subject (or of the Object, See below

(a) The forms given in 196 (a) and (b) above have the Subjectival construction: the Verbs agree with the Subjects in Number and Gender. This, as a rule, is the case with all the Intransitive Verbs. With the Transitive Verbs, however, the Objectival construction is the rule. The Verb in such cases agrees with the Object in Gender and Number and the Subject is placed in the Oblique form with . ( is Agentive).

Note: (i) It will be observed that in the first sentence has Fem. Sg. form because the Object is Fem. Sg. The subject (Ram) , which is Masc. Sg., does not affect the Verb. ®, and in the other three sentences, similarly, agree with the Objects ® (Masc, Sg.) (Masc. Pl), and µ (Fem. Sg.).

These forms cannot, of course, be called `Passive`, as far as Hindi is concerned, since the subject in each case acts and is not `acted upon` See:- (a) The forms of a Verb indicating the type of the character of the action etc. denoted by it are called Aspect.

(b) Hindi Verbs have numerous `Aspects`, such as Terminate, Progressive, Iterative, Intensive, Effective, Inceptive etc. All the Aspects (i.e. Verb-forms denoting nature of action), except the Terminate, are made by combining the main Verb with various subsidiary Verbs.

In their origin, in Sanskrit and Prakrit, they had the Passive Construction.

If a Verb has two Objects, it agrees with the primary object (94-e)

`I gave two books to Ram`.

(a) The Past Participle is formed by appending to the root:

(b) However, the root ending in ¤ and shorten their vowels before the - and, in the case of- roots, a- is inserted between the root and the-. Thus-

(c) - is similarly inserted in case of the roots ending in - -¦ or - . Thus -

(d) The following are exceptional forms:-

196. These forms, when used as Verbs of the Past Tense, modify their - to in the Feminine Singular, to - in the Feminine Plural, and to - ¦ in the Masculine Plural. Thus :-

and There is, however, no modification due to Person. The Past Indicative forms of µ are:-

With a Masculine Subject:-

Singular Plural

With a Feminine Subject:-

Note: (i) The regular and preferable Feminine forms of ±, etc. are ±, , ±, . They are frequently written as ±, . ± etc. Similarly, the regular Masc. Plurals of these forms ± and are also written as ±¦ and ¦, makes , and ¦ (also written as ). is now sub-standard.

(ii) Past Participles which edn in - in the Masc. Sg., form their Fem. by changing this to - (sg.) or - (Pl.). Thus, makes , (not , as expected), makes , ; makes , , makes , etc.

It is to be noted that a Past Participle, when used as a Verb of the Past, modifies its signification accordingly. ± as a Past Participle (Adjective) means `gone` but as a Verb `he went`.

(a) The forms given in 196 (a) and (b) above have the Subjectival construction: the Verbs agree with the Subjects in Number and Gender. This, as a rule, is the case with all the Intransitive Verbs. With the Transitive Verbs, however, the Objectival construction is the rule. The Verb in such cases agrees with the Object in Gender and Number and the Subject is placed in the Oblique form with . See :- is attached to the Subject of a Transitive Verb when it is used in the Past (Participle) form:

® `the boy ate the fruit`;
`Ram read the book`;
± `the cows gave milk`;
± ®µ `the horses pulled the carriage`;
® `the brother has written a letter`;
® `the girl had cokked the food`;

But the Subject of an Intransitive Verb in the past has the direct form:

`the boy came`;
`the horse ran`;
± ± `the cows went`.

Exceptions:-

A few Transitive Verbs like `to bring,» `to forget`, `to speak`, do not take the Subject with ; while with » `to understand` and `to chatter`, is optional. See :-

`the boy brought the book`;
`the sisters brought fruits`;
`he said`;
» `I understood`;
» `I did not understand what you said`.

Note: (i) It will be observed that in the first sentence has Fem. Sg. form because the Object is Fem. Sg. The subject (Ram) , which is Masc. Sg., does not affect the Verb. ®, and in the other three sentences, similarly, agree with the Objects ® (Masc, Sg.) (Masc. Pl), and µ (Fem. Sg.).

These forms cannot, of course, be called `Passive`, as far as Hindi is concerned, since the subject in each case acts and is not `acted upon` See: In their origin, in Sanskrit and Prakrit, they had the Passive Construction.

If a Verb has two Objects, it agrees with the primary object (94-e)

`I gave two books to Ram`.

There are a few exceptione to the above rule.

The roots `bring`, `forget`, » `understand, realize`, `chatter, talk idly`, `speak`, `fight`, quarrel`, `fear`, `meet` have the subjectival construction in the past inspite of being Transitive. However,

`bring` is, in fact, a compound Verb made of `take` + `come`; and since is Intransitive, it affects the construction of . A sentence like is to be constuured as () `he came having taken the book`. See:- It is important to remember that, whether the main root is Transitive or Intransitive, a compound Verb admits of objectival construction (with a past participle) only it the Subsidiary is Transitive. Thus:
µ `I took tea` (objectival construction),
µ `I have taken tea` (objectival construction because is trans.) But, µ µ `I have finished taking tea` (subj. constr.because µ is intrans.).Main Verb: Bare - Root (Absolutive Form)

In the compound verbs of this class, the main Verb has the absolutive form without (243) which is identical with its root form, and remains unchanged. The subsidiary Verbs commonly used are as follows:- (a).

`forget` is generally used as Compound Verb together with `go` which is Intransitive and, therefore, helps in retaining the subjectival construction. ± `Ram forgot this thing` is much more frequent than . or would, in fact, mean `Ram erred or I erred`, where is Intransitive. See:- It is important to remember that, whether the main root is Transitive or Intransitive, a compound Verb admits of objectival construction (with a past participle) only it the Subsidiary is Transitive. Thus:
µ `I took tea` (objectival construction),
µ `I have taken tea` (objectival construction because is trans.) But, µ µ `I have finished taking tea` (subj. constr.because µ is intrans.).

and are used both as Transitive and as Intransitive. In `he chattered`, is Intransitive, and in ¶ `he talked a lot of non-sense`, it is Transitive. In `he spoke`, is Intransitive, and in » `he spoke lie`, it is Transitive. However, » is also current.

» has both the construction: », » `I thought or understood`.

, and are treated as Intransitive Verbs in Hindi. The `objects` of these Verbs attach which signifies `from` or `with`:

, however, is Transitive with a cognate object (165-c) `he fought several battles`. Omission of in the above Verbs may partly be due to dialectic influence.

A Transitive Verb, whose object takes the case-sign , has Neutral construction in the past indicative:

Exceptions:- Verbs requaring two objects never have the Neutral construction:

The Intransitive Verb ¶ `sneeze` and ® `cough` have the Neutral construction in the Past Indicative : ¶ `Kamla sneezed`. ® `I coughed`. ( ® is also correct).

(a) The Indicative Past, as discussed above, invariably refers to a particular act done in the past. It is never used with reference to an act habitually or regularly done in the past, for which the habitual past is used. See:-

«he was going` (going on progressive),
± «he went`, (done - terminate),
«I read the book` (done - terminate)

Note:- The (simple) past is not use with reference to an act habitually or regularly done in the past: for this habitual past is use. See :-

(e) Habitual past tense represents an act as habitually or regularly done in the past.

«He always spoke the truth`,
¦ «He went (used to go) to Bombay once every month`,

The common forms noted above are, obviously, terminate:they represent a particular past action as a whole or as a fact, not as going on. For the progressive, please see:-

(a) The above forms are terminate, not progressive: they do not represent the act as going on in the past. Their use as progressive (``Imperfect`` or ``Continuous``) forms is archaic or dialectic.

(b) The progressive forms are made, as in the present (190) by replacing the by :

These, however, represent the progressive aspect of the simple past rather than of the habitual See:-

The forms etc. etc. do not, in fact, represent the progressive aspect of form which they are apparently made. The similarity is purely formal. is really the progressive aspect corresponding to ±

CHAPTER XXV

The Indicative Future is formed as follows:-

The root assumes a modified form by attaching - ¦ in the Second and Third person Singular, -¤ in the First person Singular, - ¦ in the First and Third person Plural, and in the Second person Plural.

Thus µ is modified to -

Singular Plural

These are really Subjective (Optative) forms. See:- (a) ¦ (third person sg.) represenst the action mainly as a desire, wish, command, requirement, purpose; but also as a condition (although not contrary to fact), a supposition, a possibility etc., almost always with an implied reference to future. This form may be called ``Optative``.

(b) The Optative forms have already been noted in connection with the Indicative Future forms (203). The forms for `come` would be:-
Singular Plural

For the roots µ and , the forms would be:-

Singular Plural Singular Plural

There is no modification due to Gender.

To the root thus modified is appended a -

The Future Indicative forms of the root µ, thus, would be-

With a Masculine subject -

Singular Plural

(b) With a Feminine subject -

Singular Plural

Note:- With the honorific pronoun , Third Person Plural forms are used -

(a) Roots ending in - or - ¤ shorten these vowels before attaching - ¦, - ¦, - ¤ and - [50 - (a) and (b)]. Thus:-

(b) The roots `give` and `take` drop their vowel (-¦) before attaching - ¦, - ¦, - ¤ and - .

(c)The root `be` does not attach - ¦ or - ¦. But ¤ (First person Sg.) and - (Second Person Pl.) are attached as usual. In the First and Third person Plural, is nasalized. The forms are ± (II and III Sg.), ± (I and III Pl.) ¤± (I Sg.) and ± (II Pl.)

(d) It is common to write ±, ± or ±, ± for ¦±, ¦± (he will come, he wil go); ±, ± etc., for ¦±, ¦± etc.; ±, ± for ¦±| ¦± etc; ±, ± for ¦±, ¦± etc. But the regular, and therefore preferable, forms are those with-¦ and-¦ (¦±, ¦± etc.). ±, (for ±), ± (for ±), ± (for ¤±) and ± (for ±) are dialectical or colloquial and should be discarded.

(e) In Fem. Plural, -± should never be nasalized. ¦± is the correct form, not ¦±.

(f) With the honorific Pronoun , Third Person plural forms are used ¦± (Masc.) ¦± (Fem.). An extra-polite form is obta ned by appending - ± to the honorific forms of the Imperative, ¦ etc. (180-b). Thus ¦±, µ¦± etc. This form is used for boththe genders.

In the Active Voice, the Indicative Future has onlythe subjectival construction: the Verb always agrees with the subject in Number, Gender and Person.

For Passive and Impersonal forms of Future,

For Progressive Future, see:- (a) as stated above (256-i 260 261-e and k) can be combined with a main Verb which is eighter in the asbsolutive (root) form, or in the present form or in the participle form: `he is going`, `he keeps going (habitually), `he keeps sitting`, `he keeps wearing a coat,

(b)of these, (1) alone dontes an action in progress or in process not yet complited. of the other three forms, (2) denotes a habit (not an action in progress), while (3) and (4) denote continuity of a state. Only (1), therefore, can form the progressive aspect.

It is to be noted that, while (2), (3) and (4) can be used in all Tenses and Moods ( ±, µ , , etc.) in the progressive sense, the Subsidiary is always in the past participle form (with the usual fem. and pl. modifications). Besides, it can be used only in the present and the habitual past ( - ) or in the Subjective forms , , ±, , , ±. In fact, is to be regarded as a past participle form of the compound + , and as equivalent to . This is clear from the fact that a present participle when used as an Adjective denotes the progressive aspect with the help of forms like , etc. (241).
It may also be noted that the rare progressive of the simple past (when used as future conditional) is . (322). It is evident from the above that Hindi Verbs have a regular progressive form only in those Tenses and Moods which are made with the help of a present participle. These are :-

( ) Present Indicative,
( ) Habitual Past-Indicative,
( ) Present Potential,
( ) Present Contingent,
± ( ±) Present Presumptive.

The forms in these Tenses are, of course, of the nature of a compound Verb. But having a special form and being so frequently used, they are on par with the common forms ( etc.).

CHAPTER XXVI

The Present Perfect represents a completed act, the effect of which is still present. It is, in fact, a tense of the past; but it brings a past act into relation with the present. The person or the thing referred to by the Verb in the Present Perfect ``must be living or still existing and thus related tothe present``. The Present Perfect ``can refer to the remote past if the present is not excluded by the statement``. ``It distinguishes sharply between present and past`` and can never be used for anything wholly past.

See:- The Present Perfect is really a past tense, but the past act that it represents is always related to the present. It cannot refer to an act which is wholly past and gone. Thus, we can say `the boy has come` only if the boy is still here, whenever he may have come. But we cannot say µ ± `the boy ``has come`` yesterday and went to-day` because the boy`s coming can no longer be related to the present: he is gone. Similarly, we can say ¦ `there have been great kings like Ashok in India` because India exists and we can relate its past to its present. We cannot, however, say µ± `Chandragupta ``has made`` Pataliputra his capital`, because neither Chandragupta nor Pataliputra now exists.

It is, therefore, not correct to call this tense `Recent Past` ( ) as has been done by many grammarians. The present perfect has nothing whatever to do with the recentness or remoteness of a past action.

The Present Perfect is made by combining the past participle of the root with the present forms of the root - `be` as given in 187. (The past participle forms are given in 195). As in the Present Indicative (188), the past participle is affected by Number and Gender, while the - forms are affected by Person and Number. The Present Perfect forms of the root µ, thus, are:- with a Masculine subject --

Singular Plural

with a Feminine subject-

Singular Plural

The above forms have subjectival construction: the root µ is Intransitive. With a Transitive Verb, however, as in the case of the simple past (98), the objectival construction is the rule. The past participle is then made to agree with the object in Number and Gender while the forms agree with the Person and Number of the object. The subject is, of course, placed in the oblique case with (96).

Note:- (i) It will be observed that the past participles , ®, ® and agree, as regards Gender and Number, with the objects

and respectively. The forms and agree with the same objects in Number and Person (third throughout).

(ii)With a Pronoun as the object or object not expressed, the objectival construction is not permissible, since the Pronouns must have a (or ¦) form and, therefore, the Verb must be in the neutral construction (200).

As in the case of Simple Past (200), whenever the object has a , the Present Perfect Verb must be in the neutral construction (for , see :- The Object of a Verb in the neutral Construction (174 (c)];

® `Ram saw the boy`,
`the brother called the sister`;
± `the stones were thrown away`;
± ¦ `let these houses be demolished`)

Exception: Verbs having two objects are never put in the neutral
construction

`I have given him two books`.

(Objectival Construction).

For Progressive forms, See:- (a) as stated above (256-i 260 261-e and k) can be combined with a main Verb which is eighter in the asbsolutive (root) form, or in the present form or in the participle form: `he is going`, `he keeps going (habitually), `he keeps sitting`, `he keeps wearing a coat,

(b)of these, (1) alone dontes an action in progress or in process not yet complited. of the other three forms, (2) denotes a habit (not an action in progress), while (3) and (4) denote continuity of a state. Only (1), therefore, can form the progressive aspect.

It is to be noted that, while (2), (3) and (4) can be used in all Tenses and Moods ( ±, µ , , etc.) in the progressive sense, the Subsidiary is always in the past participle form (with the usual fem. and pl. modifications). Besides, it can be used only in the present and the habitual past ( - ) or in the Subjective forms , , ±, , , ±. In fact, is to be regarded as a past participle form of the compound + , and as equivalent to . This is clear from the fact that a present participle when used as an Adjective denotes the progressive aspect with the help of forms like , etc. (241).
It may also be noted that the rare progressive of the simple past (when used as future conditional) is . (322). It is evident from the above that Hindi Verbs have a regular progressive form only in those Tenses and Moods which are made with the help of a present participle. These are :-

( ) Present Indicative,
( ) Habitual Past-Indicative,
( ) Present Potential,
( ) Present Contingent,
± ( ±) Present Presumptive.

The forms in these Tenses are, of course, of the nature of a compound Verb. But having a special form and being so frequently used, they are on par with the common forms ( etc.).

263. Of the remaining Moods and Tenses,

the Imperative has no progressive form; the Indicative Past has no progressive form - except the rare
conditional [262-d and 322-c]; the Indicative Future progressive is identical with the presumptive progressive ± (but, obviously, for fear of confusion,
it is seldom used); the Present Perfect has no progressive form; the Past Perfect -do- the Optative -do- the Past Potential -do- the Past Presumptive -do- the Past Contingent -do- the Past Participle -do- the Present Participle, when used as an Adjective, makes itsprogressive either with ( ) or, less commonly with ( ) the Infinitive has no progressive form; the Progressive forms of compound Verbs are made by putting the Subsidiary Verbs in the progressive, where possible; the Progressive forms of Passive are similarly made by putting in the progressive, where possible.

CHAPTER XXVII

The Habitual Past represents an action as habitually or regularly done in the past. It does not usually refer to a particular act of the past, nor to an act as going on in the past. It is not correct to call this tense ``Past Imperfect`` or ``Progressive Past``, as has been done by almost all the grammarians. Modern Hindi usage does not warrant this nomenclature. See below

(a) The above forms are terminate, not progressive: they do not represent the act as going on in the past. Their use as progressive (``Imperfect`` or ``Continuous``) forms is archaic or dialectic.

(b) The progressive forms are made, as in the present (190) by replacing the by :

These, however, represent the progressive aspect of the simple past rather than of the habitual It differs from the Simple Past (202) in as much as the latter refers to a particular act of the past, whereas the Habitual Past refers to a general fact:

The Verbs of the two senternces are not inter-changeable.

The Habitual Past is formed by combining

with the present participle forms of the Verb (Which, of course, are affected by the Number and Gender of the subject, see

196. These forms, when used as Verbs of the Past Tense, modify their - to in the Feminine Singular, to - in the Feminine Plural, and to - ¦ in the Masculine Plural. Thus :-

and There is, however, no modification due to Person. The Past Indicative forms of µ are:-

With a Masculine Subject:-

Singular Plural

With a Feminine Subject:-

) The Habitual Passt forms are not affected by Person.

The forms of the root `go` will, thus, be:- with a Masculine Subject :

Singular Plural

with a Feminine Subject :-

Singular Plural

A special form of the Habitual Past is obtained by omitting the auxiliaries , , , . It is used almost exclusively in narrating a repeated act of the past.

±

`we would (we used to) go there every morning and return in the evening.` This form may be called `Frequentative` or `Repetitive` Past.

Note:- In the Fem. Pl. of the Frequentative Past, the present participle has a - instead of the usual - :

`they (Fem,) would go`.

The `Frequentative` forms are not tobe confused with the contingent forms (233) with which they are apparently identical.

(a) The above forms are terminate, not progressive: they do not represent the act as going on in the past. Their use as progressive (``Imperfect`` or ``Continuous``) forms is archaic or dialectic.

(b) The progressive forms are made, as in the present (190) by replacing the by :

These, however, represent the progressive aspect of the simple past rather than of the habitual. See

The forms etc. etc. do not, in fact, represent the progressive aspect of form which they are apparently made. The similarity is purely formal. is really the progressive aspect corresponding to ±

(a) The Past Habitual (including the ``Frequentative``) is restricted to the present (191-92) with the help of and ©. The Auxiliaries , , however, are not omitted:

CHAPTER XXVIII

The Past Perfect represents ``a past action or state as completed at or before a certain past time``. It is not ``remote past``, as is usually supposed.

It is formed by combining , , with the past participle forms (195) of the main Verb:

There is no modificatin due to Peson. The honorific form has Third Person Plural:

±¦ (± ).

(a) As in the case of the Simple Past (198), the Transitive Verbs have the objectival construction in the Past Perfect; the Verb agrees with the object in Gender and Number, and the subject is placed in the oblique form with :

(b) The above rule is subject to the same exceptions as the rule regarding the Simple Past (199):

(c) In the case of the Verbs having two objects, the Verb agrees with the primary object [ see

Every Primary (Animate or Inanimate) Object of a verb having two Objects [See:

(c) Some Verbs have two Objects: `I gave him two books` therefore, is the ``Dorect``, or the ``primary`` Object, and him is the ``Indirect`` or the ``Secondary`` Object. (In most of such cases, the Primary Object answers the question ``what?``, and the Secondary Object answers `Whom?`).

] .

`I gave Ram a horse`;
» ± `mother will give me two fruits`;
± ¦ `may God grant him a son!`;
» ¦ ± `he asks me for a rupee`.

and See

If a Verb has two Objects, it agrees with the primary object (94-e)

`I gave two books to Ram`.)

(a) But a Transitive Verb has the neutral construction if its object takes the case-sign- (cf. 200).

Exceptionally, a few Intransitive Verbs also (201) have the neutral construction:

Note:- Verbs taking two objects never have the neutral construction.

The Past Perfect, like the simple past (202) refers to a particular act. The act. must have been completed at a past time: it is immaterial whether it was completed a moment ago or centuries ago. We can say `Ram had just now come here`, as well as,

For Progressive forms, see

(a) as stated above (256-i 260 261-e and k) can be combined with a main Verb which is eighter in the asbsolutive (root) form, or in the present form or in the participle form: `he is going`, `he keeps going (habitually), `he keeps sitting`, `he keeps wearing a coat,

(b)of these, (1) alone dontes an action in progress or in process not yet complited. of the other three forms, (2) denotes a habit (not an action in progress), while (3) and (4) denote continuity of a state. Only (1), therefore, can form the progressive aspect.

It is to be noted that, while (2), (3) and (4) can be used in all Tenses and Moods ( ±, µ , , etc.) in the progressive sense, the Subsidiary is always in the past participle form (with the usual fem. and pl. modifications). Besides, it can be used only in the present and the habitual past ( - ) or in the Subjective forms , , ±, , , ±. In fact, is to be regarded as a past participle form of the compound + , and as equivalent to . This is clear from the fact that a present participle when used as an Adjective denotes the progressive aspect with the help of forms like , etc. (241).
It may also be noted that the rare progressive of the simple past (when used as future conditional) is . (322). It is evident from the above that Hindi Verbs have a regular progressive form only in those Tenses and Moods which are made with the help of a present participle. These are :-

( ) Present Indicative,
( ) Habitual Past-Indicative,
( ) Present Potential,
( ) Present Contingent,
± ( ±) Present Presumptive.

The forms in these Tenses are, of course, of the nature of a compound Verb. But having a special form and being so frequently used, they are on par with the common forms ( etc.).

and for Passive and Impersonal Voice,

The various terminate forms of the Indicative Mood (in the active voice), discussed in Chapters III-VIII may be summarized as
follows:-

Forms made with the Present Participle:-

Forms made with the Past Participle:-

Forms made with - ± (attached to the Subjunctive forms):-

The following points may be noted:-

Note - (present participle) and - (past participle) as well as - ± forms are affected by Gender and Number:-

But Fem. Pl is - and , if there is no auxiliary: µ (Negative Present or Frequentative Past), µ (Simple Past).

Objectival construction is possible only with the past participle forms (223-b) of Transitive Vrbs:-

Neutral construction is possible only with the past participle forms of a Transitive Verb, when the object is in the oblique form:-

CHAPTER XXIX

The Subjunctive mood, as already stated (172-c), is a form of Verb, which represents the action not as a reality, but as a wish, hope, command requirement, possibility, probability, presumption, condition, etc. It represents in short ``the action or state as a conception of the mond rather than a reality`` (Cwme).

(a) In Hindi, the Subjunctive has eight different forms, that may be divided into three groups representing three tenses, present, past and future. But it must be remembered that the tenses of this mood do not define the time (of the occurrence of an action) as clearly as do the tenses of the Indicative.

In accordance with their main signfications, the eight forms may be divided into four groups - (1) those expressing (mainly) wish, desire, requirement, (2) those expressing possibility, (3) those expressing probability or presumed certainty, and (4) those referring to a condition which is contrary to fact. But it muxt again be remembered that the meanings of the four groups are not mutually exclusive: they often overlap each other. The eight forms of the root `come` grouped according to the Tenses are as follows:-

According to their main significations, they may be grouped as follows:-

(Contrary to fact)

These forms are, of course, Terminate and Active. The corresponding progressive forms of , ± and can be made by substituting for - . For Passive and Impersonal Voices, and for other progressive forms, see:

(a) as stated above (256-i 260 261-e and k) can be combined with a main Verb which is eighter in the asbsolutive (root) form, or in the present form or in the participle form: `he is going`, `he keeps going (habitually), `he keeps sitting`, `he keeps wearing a coat,

(b)of these, (1) alone dontes an action in progress or in process not yet complited. of the other three forms, (2) denotes a habit (not an action in progress), while (3) and (4) denote continuity of a state. Only (1), therefore, can form the progressive aspect.

It is to be noted that, while (2), (3) and (4) can be used in all Tenses and Moods ( ±, µ , , etc.) in the progressive sense, the Subsidiary is always in the past participle form (with the usual fem. and pl. modifications). Besides, it can be used only in the present and the habitual past ( - ) or in the Subjective forms , , ±, , , ±. In fact, is to be regarded as a past participle form of the compound + , and as equivalent to . This is clear from the fact that a present participle when used as an Adjective denotes the progressive aspect with the help of forms like , etc. (241).
It may also be noted that the rare progressive of the simple past (when used as future conditional) is . (322). It is evident from the above that Hindi Verbs have a regular progressive form only in those Tenses and Moods which are made with the help of a present participle. These are :-

( ) Present Indicative,
( ) Habitual Past-Indicative,
( ) Present Potential,
( ) Present Contingent,
± ( ±) Present Presumptive.

The forms in these Tenses are, of course, of the nature of a compound Verb. But having a special form and being so frequently used, they are on par with the common forms ( etc.).

The forms as given above are in the subjectival construction for a masculine singular subject in the third person. The rest will be indicated below under each. ¦ (Optative)

(a) ¦ (third person sg.) represenst the action mainly as a desire, wish, command, requirement, purpose; but also as a condition (although not contrary to fact), a supposition, a possibility etc., almost always with an implied reference to future. This form may be called ``Optative``.

(b) The Optative forms have already been noted in connection with the Indicative Future forms (203). The forms for `come` would be:-
Singular Plural

For the roots µ and , the forms would be:-

Singular Plural Singular Plural

There is no modification due to Gender.

The following sentences will illustrate the usage:

Note: (i) It will be observed that all the sentences, except the last two, have an implied reference to Future. The last but one makes a general statement with no reference to time. In the last sentences, the Verb expresses a supposed state existing at present.

(ii) It will also be noticed that the Optative Verb in the third sentence ¦ has the force of an Imperative. But being an indirect command, it cannot be classed as imperative which is the mood of direct command or request. For the same reason, the Imperative can have no form for the first person. The forms mentioned bymost of the grammarians as first and third person ``Imperative`` are identical with the Optative forms given above. But they cannot be regarded as Imperative. It will be observed that the second peson Plural form (µ etc.) is identical in the two moods. Notice, however, in the fifth sentence the clear difference between the meaning of an Imperative secon person plural ® `eat, take` and that of an Optative second person, (µ¶) ! `so that you get well`.

With the honorific pronoun, the Optatives may denote polite request or suggestion:

¦ `you had better not go there` (180-a).

(iv) The forms or (for ), (for ¦), , (for ¦), , (for ¦), , (for ,) etc. should be discarded as archaic. The only correct forms are those with - ¦-¦, (Cf.205-d).

The above forms are in the subjectival construction. The Obtative does not have the objectival construction. For Passive and Impersonal Voice. For Progressive forms, see

(a) as stated above (256-i 260 261-e and k) can be combined with a main Verb which is eighter in the asbsolutive (root) form, or in the present form or in the participle form: `he is going`, `he keeps going (habitually), `he keeps sitting`, `he keeps wearing a coat,

(b)of these, (1) alone dontes an action in progress or in process not yet complited. of the other three forms, (2) denotes a habit (not an action in progress), while (3) and (4) denote continuity of a state. Only (1), therefore, can form the progressive aspect.

It is to be noted that, while (2), (3) and (4) can be used in all Tenses and Moods ( ±, µ , , etc.) in the progressive sense, the Subsidiary is always in the past participle form (with the usual fem. and pl. modifications). Besides, it can be used only in the present and the habitual past ( - ) or in the Subjective forms , , ±, , , ±. In fact, is to be regarded as a past participle form of the compound + , and as equivalent to . This is clear from the fact that a present participle when used as an Adjective denotes the progressive aspect with the help of forms like , etc. (241).
It may also be noted that the rare progressive of the simple past (when used as future conditional) is . (322). It is evident from the above that Hindi Verbs have a regular progressive form only in those Tenses and Moods which are made with the help of a present participle. These are :-

( ) Present Indicative,
( ) Habitual Past-Indicative,
( ) Present Potential,
( ) Present Contingent,
± ( ±) Present Presumptive.

The forms in these Tenses are, of course, of the nature of a compound Verb. But having a special form and being so frequently used, they are on par with the common forms ( etc.).

B. , (Potential)

(a) These forms denote, mainly, possibility of the occurrece of an action with reference to the present and the past:

They may also express wish and desire, but not command, erquierment and purpose. Condition and supposition can be expressed by them These forms may be called present and past `potential`.

(b) The potential forms are made by combining the present and the past participles of the main Verb with the forms of given above.

Thus:-

Singular Plural

Similarly, ¤ etc.

For changing into Feminie, - , and - of the participles are replaced by - and -: ¤ etc. The Progressive (present forms can be made by substituting for : .

The following sentences will illustrate the usage:-

(b) The present, especially the Progressive forms, may, if the context so indicates, refer to (immediate) future:-

(c) The present Potential has only the subjectival construction. The past Potential has the objectival construction if the Verb is Transitive: see the second and the sixth sentences under (a) above. Where the object is in the oblique form, the past Potential has the neutral construction: see the third sentence under (a) above.

For Passive and Impersonal forms,

In most of the grammars, the Optative form has been mentioned as the future form of the Potential and the Optative mood completely ignored, its function having been assigned to the Imperative. This is hardly justifiable. See

(ii) It will also be noticed that the Optative Verb in the third sentence ¦ has the force of an Imperative. But being an indirect command, it cannot be classed as imperative which is the mood of direct command or request. For the same reason, the Imperative can have no form for the first person. The forms mentioned bymost of the grammarians as first and third person ``Imperative`` are identical with the Optative forms given above. But they cannot be regarded as Imperative. It will be observed that the second peson Plural form (µ etc.) is identical in the two moods. Notice, however, in the fifth sentence the clear difference between the meaning of an Imperative secon person plural ® `eat, take` and that of an Optative second person, (µ¶) ! `so that you get well`.

±, ± (Presumptive)

(a) These forms express probability and presumed or inferred certainty. They may be called `Presumptive`. The names `Doubtful Present` and `Doubtful Past` for these forms, adopted by some grammarians, are misleading. The forms seldom denote `doubt`.

The presumptive forms are made by combining the present or the past participle forms of the main Verb with the future forms of . The participles are, of course, modified to agree with the subject in Number and Gender:

¤±, ±, ¤±, ¦ ±, etc.

The present progressive forms, as usual, can be made by substituting for - : ±.

(a) The following sentences illustrate the usage:-

The two presumptive forms can be used with reference to any time present, past or future, as required by the context:

The simkple future is sometimes used as the future presumptive. Thus, ¦± (pronounced with a slight emphasis on -¦) may denote, (besides `he will come`) `he is sure to come, he must come`, in which case it will really be a presumptive.

The simple future forms of the root , however, are used as present presumptive:

In interrogation, the presumptive may denote surprise or perplexity:

The past presumptive of a Transitive Verb has objectival construction as in the third sentence under (a) above. When the object is in the oblique form, the past presumptive has the neutral construction as in the fourth sentence under (a).

For Passive and Impersonal Voice,

, , (Contingent)

These forms denote, mainly, a condition which is contrary to fact. They may also express a wish which cannot be fulfilled. Theymay be called `Contingent`. The first two forms and may refer to the present, the past or the future. The last ( ) refers to the past.

D. , , (Contingent)

These forms denote, mainly, a condition which is contrary to fact. They may also express a wish which cannot be fulfilled. They may be called `Contingent`. The first two forms and may refer to the present, the past of the future. The last ( ) refers to the past.

The first form is identical with a present participle.

The other two forms are made by combining the present and the past participles of the main verb with the present participle of ; is the progressive of ±.

(a) The following senteces will illustrate the usage:

(b) The fourth sentence is in the objectival construction: the Verb is Transitive and the subject has a . The Last sentence is in the neutral construction, the object having the oblique form.

For Passive and Impersonal Voice,

CHAPTER XXX

The Infinitive is that form of a Verb which expresses simply the notion of the Verb without predicating it of any subject. In Hindi, it is formed by adding to the bare root and is used both as a Noun and as an Adjective.

(a) When used as a Noun (usually Abstract), the Infinitive is treated like an ordinary Noun ending in (Masc.). But, being Abstract, it is not used in the plural:

(b) The Infinitive, in spite of being a Noun, retains its verbal character and can, therefore, take an Object:

The abstract idea represented by an Infinitive being ``inanimate``, It is not usual to attach when the Infinitive is used as an object. It does, however, attach for signifying ``for the purpose of`` or ``with a view to``. THe is occasionally replaced by (see : - a.The following are used with (or - ) :-
`within` ( ) `according to` ( ) ± `facing, in front of, `in front of` ( ) beyond` ( ±) ¶ `behind` ( ¶) ¤ `above, upon` ( ¤) µ `below, under` ( µ) `near, with` ( , ) `around ( ) `within, in` ( )
`before` ( ) `after` ( )
`across` ( ) or `through` ( , ) ¦ or `for` ( ¦) or `except` ( ) `without`, ( ) © or `besides` ( ©) `instead of` (® ) `equal` ( ) `against` ( ) ± or `worthy` ( ±, ) `contrary to` ( ) `with ( ) ` (live) with or, `at the place `because of` ( ) of` ( `at the place) `about, concerning` ( ). `on account of` (® )

and both and may be omitted when the Infinitive is followed by the Verb `come` and `go`

Note (i) Infinitives are frequently used in combination with the root µ `want`:

, etc. in such sentences may be regarded as the objects of µ See :- µ `to want` retains its meaning..
µ `I want to go`,
± ® µ `the boy wants to play with a ball`.
µ [also µ `it is about to strike ten`.
[lit. `the ten (hours) want to strike`].

(ii) An Infinitive attaches when followed by the Verbs and and denotes ``about to....``.

238. The Infinitive is used as an Adjective only in combination with a few Verbs denoting obligation, necessity, requirement, compulsion etc. , , and µ¦ are the Verbs most frequently used in this sense. The subject in such cases has (or ¦ in Pronouns 97-a), and the Infinitive has , or , according as the object is Masc. sg. or Masc. Pl.:

Note: (1) It is not uncommon to say , µ¦ etc. for , µ¦ etc. The latter forms are preferable. See :- However, when an Infinitive is Transitive, it is used as an Adjective to its object and changes its ending - to- or - ne according as the object is Feminine (sg. or pl.) or Masculine pl. The subsidiaries also agree with the object in Number and Gender :

± `the boy will have to take medicine`,
» ® `I had to write three letters`.

Note: It is not correct to say µµ or » ® as is sometimes done on the analogy of Intransitive Infinitives ( ±, etc. which are Nouns.

(c)µ¦ `is wanted` or `ought to be.....` is a true passive It can be combined with a Noun in the first sense (`is wanted`) and with an Infinitive (noun, if Intransitive and Adjective, if
Transitive) in the second sense. The subject has (or-¦)

µ¦ `Ram wants books` (literally, books are wanted by (for) Ram)»,

© µ¦ `what do you want ? (What is wanted by you ?),
µ¦ `you ought togo` (Infinitive Noun),
µ¦ `you ought to read books` (Infinitive Adjective).

Note: (i) µ¦ is as incorrect as . However, µ¦ does not modify (as and do). µ¦ as a plural of µ¦ ( µ¦) is occasionally met with, but had better be doscarded An Infinitive having and combined with denotes ``not willing to.....``, ``not ready to.....``. The Finite Verb () in such cases is omitted:

For further uses of the Infinitive, For Passive forms,

The Infinitive forms are not to be confused with the Imperative (180-a).

CHAPTER XXXI

Participles are verbal adjectives qualifying noun (or pronoun) but retaining some properties of verbs. Hindi has two kinds of Participles, Present and Past.

(a) Formation of Present and Past Participles has already been explained in 185 and 195:

etc. are Present Participles.

etc. are Past Participles.

Both the Participles are affected by the Gender, the Number, and the Case of the Nouns or Pronouns which they qualify. µ, µ are Masc. sg., µ, µ; Masc. pl., µ and µ Fem. sg. or pl. The oblique forms for Masc. sg. and pl. is also µ, µ; Fem. forms remain unchanged in the oblique.

(a) The Present Participle can be used like an ordinary Adjective:

Occasionally, however, (for the ske of clarity) a , or ¦ etc.
Both the Present Participle and the Auxiliary (which is the Past Participle form of ) must agree with the Noun they qualify. Present Participles can also be used as Adverbs (usually as Adverbs of time and manner), in which case they have the oblique (-¦) form, and are often repeated:

When a Present Participle is used as part of the Predicate, it has an adverbial sense, and consequently the oblique form:

With , a Present Participle (oblique) denotes ``immediately after``, ``as soon as``:

A Present Participle, like other Adjectives, can be used also as a Noun, in which case it is declined like an - Noun (90) :

(a) A Past Participle can be used as an ordinary Adjective with or without , , ¦:

(b) It can be used, like a Present Participle, as a Noun:

The adverbial use of a Past Participle is similar to that of a Present Participle.

±¦ or ( ±¦), or ( ) etc. denote `without going (having gone)», `without reading (having read)», when is a Preposition (or Post-Position). See:- The Post-positions , and () are sometimes used, for the sake of emphasis, before the Noun which they govern:-

The Verb itself forms its Absolutive by appending : `having done`.

Note: (i) The Absolutive forms should always be written as two separate words: , ® , , etc., not as , ®, etc. But may be writtern as one word.

, ® are archaic and should be discarded, , ® are similarly to be avoided, for is dialectic and should similarly be avoided. Pairs of allied Verbs can form a `Compound Absolutive:

244. (a) The Absolutive is generally adverbial in nature. As its name suggests, it is not affected by the gender, number or case of the subject or of the object. It has various significations :

(b) The following special uses may be noted:

For Passive and Impersonal forms,

(a) Amongst Participles may be included the forms. These also are made by appending to the Oblique Infinitive forms, and are adjectival in nature, denoting ``one who does``:

When used predicative words, they may imply futurity:

can also be appended to nouns in which case it denotes `one who sells ...........`, 0
`one who deals in..........`,
`one who is concerned with........` etc.

These, of course, are not Participles, but simple Adjectives.

Being Adjectives, they are affected by Number and Gender of the Noun whcih they qualify (-, - , - ), or can be used as Nouns themselves (- etc.). -, a variant of - is attached to place-names for forming certain surnames, etc. :

CHAPTER XXXII

(a) As stated earlier (166), most of the Hindi Verbs may, by slightly modifying their forms, signify Causation of the action etc. denoted by them.:

Since ``causing something tobe done`` is an action which must be directed towards somebody, all Causative Verbs are invariably Transitive. The Causatives are made by adding an - either to the bare root or to its modified form (249_.

A Causative Verb has the same forms (Voice, Moods etc.) as an ordinary Transitive Verb.

247. (a) Many Verbs have an additional Causal form, usually called ``the Second Causal`` which is made by adding - to the bare root or to its modified form.

(b) It must, however, be remembered that the second causal form is restricted to such verbs whose first causals denote real activity on the part of their `doer`, not merely `getting something done.` Thus, the first causal of `to study, to learn` is `to teach` which is a real activity on the part of the teacher, not merely `making (the student) learn` (which can be done by anybody who is able to persuade or frighten the students to learn!). This verb, therefore may form a second causal, which would mean `to get a student taught (by a teacher)». Similarly, the first causal of ± `to fall` is ± `to fell`, which denotes an activity on the part of the person (a labourer etc.) who fells (a tree etc.), and not merely ``directing or presuading (a tree etc.) ``to fall``. This, accordingly, can have a second causal ± which would mean ``to get (a tree etc.) felled (by a labourer etc.)»« . On the other hand, in the case of a root like `to do`, the first causal `` to get done` does not denote an activity on the part of the subject, but merely an order or a direction to somebody (a servant etc.) to do something. This verb, therefore, cannot have a second causal. Its second causal form is (unfortunately) in existence, but is identical in meaning with the first causal . Many such ``false`` second causals are in common use. They have, in fact, been formed on the analogy of ``true`` second causals (like , ± etc.), and should be treated as mere alternative forms (which had better be discarded) of the first causals. Under 249, all the ``false`` causals have been given in brackets.

There are also some ``false`` first causals. These verbs, which look like the first causals of certain simple verbs are simple verbs themselves; while what look like the original verbs, are their passive forms; thus `to cut ` looks like the first causal of . `to be cut` (and has been mentioned as such by almost all the grammarians!) But, as the meaning clearly indicates, is the passive form of , and not its ``root.`` consequently cannot be called a causative. , `to get (something) cut is the first causal of `to cut` not the second causal of as is commonly supposed. Verbs of the nature which have a passive meaning without having the normal passive formation may be called (from the point of view of Hindi), `original passives.` They are always intransitive. Some of the frequently used original passives are-

For further particulars,

The first causal forms are made by appending an- to the root which, in some cases, is slightly modified. The second causal is formed by appending -to the root, or to its modified form. The modification fo the root is similar in both the cases.

Roots ending in a consonant and having the first vowel short remain unchanged.

The second causal form given below in bracket is ``false`` and may be regarded as identical with the first causal (248).

Simple 1st Causal 2nd Causal

If the first vowel of a root is long, it changes to the corresponding short. ¦ and change to and respectively. But ¦ and remain unchanged:

Note:- ® for ® and ® for ® are Colloquial. The - forms should be restricted to the roots ending in a vowel [See (c) below.]

(ii) changes it meaning in the causal form. `to call` does not have a causal relationwith `to speak`. The latter, however, has the second causal form meaning `to cause to speak`.

The root `to sit` has five forms for the first causal: , , and of which only the first two are acceptable. Roots ending in a long vowel shorten the same and append a- instead of an - in the first Causal. The second Causal, consequently, adds a - instead of a and ¦ and change to and . In the following list, `False` second causals are given in brackets.

Note:- (i) ® `to eat` has exceptional forms ® and ®. ®, however, is also the first Causal of ® `to play` and of ® `to blossom: to open`. Context alone would show the intended sense.

(ii) `to take` has the exceptional form .

(iii) `to sow` has the exceptional form or . is dialectical.

(b) The following forms may be noted:-

Active Causal Passive

the Causal of `to say`, is passive and means `to be called `. is thealternative form which had better be restricted to mean `to cause to tell `.

(a) As mentioned above, an Intransitive Verb becomes Transitive in the first Causal: µµ `the child sleeps`, µµ `the maid-servant puts the child to sleep`. The original Subject (µµ etc.) assumes the role of the Object, which, if Animate, is placed in the Oblique Case with (97-b), and if Inanimate, in the Direct Case (94-c) : ± `the labourer fells the tree`.

(b) A Transitive Verb has two Objects in the first Causal-the original Object, and the original Subject. The original Object in such cases becomes the primary Object, ov course, has the Direct form and the secondary Object has the Oblique form with (94-c and 97-d):

µµ `the child sucks (milk)»,

µµ `the mother suckles the child`.

Similarly, ® ® ` the teacher teaches the students how to write`.

(c) This rule, however, holds good only with such first Causals as denote real activity on the part of the Subject (of the Causal), and not mere causation (getting something done). Where mere causation is denoted, the secondary Object (original Subject) functions as an `Agent` and has the Oblique form with :

Neither `Ram` nor `I` does anything here, except to order or direct the servant and the washerman.

When a Verb of the type (a) has the second Causal form, the original Subject remains as it was in the first Causal form, namely, an Object, but the Subject of the first Causal has a :-

Similarly,

In the case of a Verb of the type (b), the original Subject and the Object remain what they were in the first Causal, namely, secondary Object andy primary Object, while the Subject of the first Causal has :-

(a) Some roots have no causal forms at all. Such are e.g.

Occasionally, they have a ``Substitute Causal``, some other Verb runctioning as a causal for them. Thus, `to send (to make to go)» is a Substitute Causal of `to go`; `to do, to make (to cause to be)» may function as a causal of `to be`; and `to give (to cause to obtain)» that of `to obtain`.

(b) `to bring` makes its first Causal with the help of : `to cause to bring`.

CHAPTER XXXIII

Hindi has a large numberof compound verbs..these, as already noted (167), are formed by combining two, sometimes three or more, verbs.
of the two (or more) verbs of which a compound verb consists; the first one usually is the main and the other (or the rest) subsidiary.the main verb has either the root form;or the participle form or the Infinitive form.
Except when it is a Participle, the main root has the same for all Voices, Moods, Tenses etc. All changes due to Voice, Mood, Tense and construction affect only the Subsidiary Verb. Thus -

± ± `he started singing`,
± ± `she started singing`,
± ±± `we shall start singing`,
± ± `you start singing`,
µ `I have finished reading`,
µ± `she will have finished reading`.

But ® ® µ `he is going on (continuously) eating`, ® µ `she is going on eating`,

As already stated (170), the Subsidiary Verbs help to modify the `aspect` or the nature of the action denoted by the main Verb `to sleep`, `to fall asleep`., Effectuve Aspect; or Completive); ® `to eat ® ± `to start eating`, (Inceptive or Inchoative Aspect); `to come`, `to come frequently`, (Frequentative Aspect). `he is coming` is Progressive Aspect with a special form. See:-

(a) as stated above (256-i 260 261-e and k) can be combined with a main Verb which is eighter in the asbsolutive (root) form, or in the present form or in the participle form: `he is going`, `he keeps going (habitually), `he keeps sitting`, `he keeps wearing a coat,

(b)of these, (1) alone dontes an action in progress or in process not yet complited. of the other three forms, (2) denotes a habit (not an action in progress), while (3) and (4) denote continuity of a state. Only (1), therefore, can form the progressive aspect.

It is to be noted that, while (2), (3) and (4) can be used in all Tenses and Moods ( ±, µ , , etc.) in the progressive sense, the Subsidiary is always in the past participle form (with the usual fem. and pl. modifications). Besides, it can be used only in the present and the habitual past ( - ) or in the Subjective forms , , ±, , , ±. In fact, is to be regarded as a past participle form of the compound + , and as equivalent to . This is clear from the fact that a present participle when used as an Adjective denotes the progressive aspect with the help of forms like , etc. (241).
It may also be noted that the rare progressive of the simple past (when used as future conditional) is . (322). It is evident from the above that Hindi Verbs have a regular progressive form only in those Tenses and Moods which are made with the help of a present participle. These are :-

( ) Present Indicative,
( ) Habitual Past-Indicative,
( ) Present Potential,
( ) Present Contingent,
± ( ±) Present Presumptive.

The forms in these Tenses are, of course, of the nature of a compound Verb. But having a special form and being so frequently used, they are on par with the common forms ( etc.).

Some Subsidiary Verbs help to change the Voice of the main Verb, usually from Active to Passive: ® `to lose`, ® (or ®) `to get lost`.

The Compound Verbs may be divided into four groups according to the form of main Verb; viz.; (1) Bare Root (i.e. Absolutive without ), (2) Infinitive, (3) Present Participle, and (4) Past Participle.
The various aspects will be noted while discussing each group.

255. It is important to remember that, whether the main root is Transitive or Intransitive, a compound Verb admits of objectival construction (with a past participle) only it the Subsidiary is Transitive. Thus:
µ `I took tea` (objectival construction),
µ `I have taken tea` (objectival construction because is trans.) But, µ µ `I have finished taking tea` (subj. constr.because µ is intrans.).

Main Verb: Bare - Root (Absolutive Form)

In the compound verbs of this class, the main Verb has the absolutive form without (243) which is identical with its root form, and remains unchanged. The subsidiary Verbs commonly used are as follows:-

(b) `to come` retains part of its own meaning while indicating
completion of an action (denoted by the main Verb). It also denotes (with an Intransitive Verb) `to come to` or `to be about to`, in which sense its past tense has the force of the present or the present perfect:

`I come having done the work,»
® ® `I come having taken the meal,»
® `I have come having seen him`,
`I have been to Bombay`,
, `You go to the market and come back`, (lit. `you come back after having been to the market`).
`to take` + gives `to bring`, although `to fetch` is also in use. (Note the difference in the meaning) does not consequently admit of objectival construction in the past tense (199).

(c) `to go` indicates `completion` besides making passives (Chapter XIV):
¤± `I shall drink off the entire milk`,
± `he read the entire book`,
± `Sita has come`.
In some cases, retains part of its own meaning besides
denoting completion:
± `the servant has done his work and gone`,
± `the washerman took away the clothes`.
(d) `to arise, to get up` indicates ` (suddenly) start to....`
± ` (suddenly) he started singing`,
µµ `the child (suddenly, unexpectedly) started crying`.
(e) `to sit` indicates `to do something (undesirable in desperation, without forethougth, or suddenly, or completely, or forcibly`:
± , ± `do not bother him otherwise he
will (get desperate and) strike`,
© `what (aweful thing) have I done`!
he suddenly got up`,
(f) `to take` denotes `completnion` of some action, mainly `for in the interest of oneself`:
® ` I have taken my meal`,
`to finish off sleeping`,
`to finish off crying`,
`to take away (for oneself)»,
The compound `to be completed` is passive.
, ¶± `we shall go after this work is done`.
However, in the phrase `to accompany`, it is Active:
`I accompanied him`. (g) `to give`denotes `completion` of an action `for someone else`;
`I (have) completed your work (for you)»;
» ± `he will give (away) his book to me`; ( as main, as well as subsidiary).
may also denote `to start to .....`. with an Intransitive main verb:
`he started crying`,
µ `he started to go`.
Notice the difference;
`I read the letter`,
`I read out the letter (for someone who could not
or would not read it himself)».
(h) `to fall` denotes ` suddenness, chance, happening`:
`he burst out laughing`,
± `I fell down (happening`:
It also makes passives with the added sense of `happening`:
¦ `it seems.........`,
® ` at a distance, a mountain come into view`,
means `to befall, to happen to come (unexpectedly)».
`to be made` + means `to be possibole`:
» `I did whateverv I could`.

`to throw, is combined with Transitive Verbs and indicates `completion` with vehemence and within a short time:
`he cut away the tree`,
µµ `the child broke the mirror to pieces`.
Similarly, `to kill off`, ® `eat up`,
`to drink off` etc.
(j) `to live, to continue, is sused for forming the progressive
aspect. See :-

(a) as stated above (256-i 260 261-e and k) can be combined with a main Verb which is eighter in the asbsolutive (root) form, or in the present form or in the participle form: `he is going`, `he keeps going (habitually), `he keeps sitting`, `he keeps wearing a coat,

(b)of these, (1) alone dontes an action in progress or in process not yet complited. of the other three forms, (2) denotes a habit (not an action in progress), while (3) and (4) denote continuity of a state. Only (1), therefore, can form the progressive aspect.

(c) It is to be noted that, while (2), (3) and (4) can be used in all Tenses and Moods ( ±, µ , , etc.) in the progressive sense, the Subsidiary is always in the past participle form (with the usual fem. and pl. modifications). Besides, it can be used only in the present and the habitual past ( - ) or in the Subjective forms , , ±, , , ±.

(d) In fact, is to be regarded as a past participle form of the compound + , and as equivalent to . This is clear from the fact that a present participle when used as an Adjective denotes the progressive aspect with the help of forms like , etc. (241).
It may also be noted that the rare progressive of the simple past (when used as future conditional) is . (322).

(e) It is evident from the above that Hindi Verbs have a regular progressive form only in those Tenses and Moods which are made with the help of a present participle. These are :-

( ) Present Indicative,
( ) Habitual Past-Indicative,
( ) Present Potential,
( ) Present Contingent,
± ( ±) Present Presumptive.

The forms in these Tenses are, of course, of the nature of a compound Verb. But having a special form and being so frequently used, they are on par with the common forms ( etc.).
(k) `to emerge, to come out` denotes `to happen to....`, to start to.....`:
± µ `the carriage started moving`,
`my friend happened to come this side`.
(l) , which is not used independently, denotes `to be able to......`
This is one of the most frequently used subsidiaries (intransitive):
± `I can sing`,
© ± `will he be able to come?`.
(m) µ `to be finished or exhausted` (passive) denotes `completion`.
As a Subsidiary, it is Active and Intransitive:
µ, `he got up only after he had finished reading`,
µ± `I shall have finished this work by to-morrow`.
(n) `to die`, is, as a Subsidiary, combined with such main
Verbs as - `burn`, - `be drowned`;
`he was burnt (or burnt himself) to death`,
`he drowned himself`.
and denote unwanted or undersirable coming and going.
(o) `to beat or kill` as a Subsidiary denotes `thoughtlessness` or `carelessness`:
© ® ? `what non-sense have you written?` (p) `to find, to obtain` is synonymous with `The subject, however, does not attach (or-¦):
¦± `he will not be able to come bythis evening`,
`I could not do my work`.
(q) µ `to move` as a Subsidiary denotes `beginning`;
µ `nights began growing longer`,
µ `he is growing old`.
(r) ® `to keep, to place, as a Subsidiary debites `priority or
precedence (in time)»:

® ® `I have kept the letter ready (written)»:
® `I have given standing instructions to the servant`.

Main Verb: Infinitive

257. This group can be divided into two sub-groups-

where the main Verb has an unodified infinitive form and where the main Verb has the oblique form (i.e. - instead of - of the Infinitive).

258. The more important subsidiaries combined with a main Verb
in unmodified Infinitive form are as follows:-

µ `to want` retains its meaning. See :-The abstract idea represented by an Infinitive being ``inanimate``, It is not usual to attach when the Infinitive is used as an object. It does, however, attach for signifying ``for the purpose of`` or ``with a view to``. THe is occasionally replaced by (see : - a.The following are used with (or - ) :-
`within` ( ) `according to` ( ) ± `facing, in front of, `in front of` ( ) beyond` ( ±) ¶ `behind` ( ¶) ¤ `above, upon` ( ¤) µ `below, under` ( µ) `near, with` ( , ) `around ( ) `within, in` ( )
`before` ( ) `after` ( )
`across` ( ) or `through` ( , ) ¦ or `for` ( ¦) or `except` ( ) `without`, ( ) © or `besides` ( ©) `instead of` (® ) `equal` ( ) `against` ( ) ± or `worthy` ( ±, ) `contrary to` ( ) `with ( ) ` (live) with or, `at the place `because of` ( ) of` ( `at the place) `about, concerning` ( ). `on account of` (® )

and both and may be omitted when the Infinitive is followed by the Verb `come` and `go`

Note (i) Infinitives are frequently used in combination with the root µ `want`:

, etc. in such sentences may be regarded as the objects of µ
µ `I want to go`,
± ® µ `the boy wants to play with a ball`.
µ [also µ (See :- The main Varb as past participle is affected by the Number and Gender of the subject, or of the object.

The important subsidiaries are as follows :-

retains its meaning (`to come`), while denoting `imminence` or `immediacy`:

µ `the enemy is advancing (on us)»,
`clouds are fast gathering`.
µ means `to come away` or `to come this way`.

combined with an Intransitive main Verb denotes
`going to...` `about to.....`

`I am about to die of pain`,
± `the train is about to come`.
µ means `to go away`.

This use of with a past participle is not to be confused with the passive forms, (272).

`to fall down` is usually combined with Verbs having a
similar meaning, viz. `to fall down` and denotes `about to ....`, `going to...`:

± `the girl is about to fall down`,
`I am going to jump into the river`,

denotes `frequency` or habitual action`:

` (make it a habit to) read attentively`,
® µ ` (always) look about when you walk`.

combined with a past participle (having a passive sense)
denotes `continuity of a state`:

® `he kept lying on the bed`,
® `the book is always lying on the table`.

µ `to want` denotes `imminence`:

µ `it is about to start raining`,
µ it is about to strike ten`.

With the following subsidiaries, the main Verb has the oblique
form of the Past participle:-

denotes `continuity or imminent completion`:

¦ `continue to do your work`,
± `the snake is about to swallow up the frog`.
¦ ` he is taking away my books`.

denotes `imminent completion of something for oneself`:

`I shall read this lesson in no time,»
® ®¦ `he is about to finish off the entire food`.

similarly denotes `imminent completion of an action for some one else`:

¦ `I shall finish your work in no time`.

(j) denotes `imminent completion`:

» `the robbers are about to kill me`,

denotes `continuity of a state or of a completed action`:

¦ `he is always drunk`,
he always has a coat on`.,) `it is about to strike ten`.
[lit. `the ten (hours) want to strike`]. With the Verbs , and µ¦, the Infinitive is used as an Adjective. See:- The Infinitive is used as an Adjective only in combination with a few Verbs denoting obligation, necessity, requirement, compulsion etc. , , and µ¦ are the Verbs most frequently used in this sense. The subject in such cases has (or ¦ in Pronouns 97-a), and the Infinitive has , or , according as the object is Masc. sg. or Masc. Pl.:

and See:-

(a) and (and the substantive ) combine with infinitives (as already noted 238) and denote `necessity, obligation, requirement` etc. The compounds thus made are passive in meaning. The subject has

`Ram had to go`,
» ± `I shall have to go to Bombay`.
`the servant hjad to go to the market`.
The Infinitives here are used as Abstract Nouns.

However, when an Infinitive is Transitive, it is used as an Adjective to its object and changes its ending - to- or - ne according as the object is Feminine (sg. or pl.) or Masculine pl. The subsidiaries also agree with the object in Number and Gender :

± `the boy will have to take medicine`,
» ® `I had to write three letters`.

Note: It is not correct to say µµ or » ® as is sometimes done on the analogy of Intransitive Infinitives ±, etc.

(c)µ¦ `is wanted` or `ought to be.....` is a true passive It can be combined with a Noun in the first sense (`is wanted`) and with an Infinitive (noun, if Intransitive and Adjective, if
Transitive) in the second sense. The subject has (or-¦)

µ¦ `Ram wants books` (literally, books are wanted by (for) Ram)»,

© µ¦ `what do you want ? (What is wanted by you ?),
µ¦ `you ought togo` (Infinitive Noun),
µ¦ `you ought to read books` (Infinitive Adjective).

259. The subsidiaries frequently combined with a main Verb in the oblique form are:-

± (Intransitive) denotes `to begin to .....`, and is very frequently used:

± `he started (to go)»,

® ± `he began to dig the ground`.

`to give` denotges `to permit to.....,» `to let....`:

`let Ram study`,
» ¦ `please allow me to go,»
`I did not allow him to say anything`.

`to obtain` denotes `to be able to` `to be permitted to....`,

(usually negative)

¶ `I was not able to do anything`,
± `you will not be allowed to go`.

Main Verb: Present Participle

260. The main Verb as a Present Participle is affected by the Number and the Gender of the subject, or of the object. Compound Verbs with the main Verb in the Present Participle form have the following subsidiaries:

denotes `to go on doing something`:

± `the malady goes on aggravating`.

denotes `continue to do something as a habit`:

`he keeps working from moning till
eveving`.

Note: compounds refer to a particular act and compounds to a habit.

For the progressive use of , see :-

(a) as stated above (256-i 260 261-e and k) can be combined with a main Verb which is eighter in the asbsolutive (root) form, or in the present form or in the participle form: `he is going`, `he keeps going (habitually), `he keeps sitting`, `he keeps wearing a coat,

(b)of these, (1) alone dontes an action in progress or in process not yet complited. of the other three forms, (2) denotes a habit (not an action in progress), while (3) and (4) denote continuity of a state. Only (1), therefore, can form the progressive aspect.

It is to be noted that, while (2), (3) and (4) can be used in all Tenses and Moods ( ±, µ , , etc.) in the progressive sense, the Subsidiary is always in the past participle form (with the usual fem. and pl. modifications). Besides, it can be used only in the present and the habitual past ( - ) or in the Subjective forms , , ±, , , ±. In fact, is to be regarded as a past participle form of the compound + , and as equivalent to . This is clear from the fact that a present participle when used as an Adjective denotes the progressive aspect with the help of forms like , etc. (241).
It may also be noted that the rare progressive of the simple past (when used as future conditional) is . (322). It is evident from the above that Hindi Verbs have a regular progressive form only in those Tenses and Moods which are made with the help of a present participle. These are :-

( ) Present Indicative,
( ) Habitual Past-Indicative,
( ) Present Potential,
( ) Present Contingent,
± ( ±) Present Presumptive.

The forms in these Tenses are, of course, of the nature of a compound Verb. But having a special form and being so frequently used, they are on par with the common forms ( etc.).

denotes `continuity` form some past time until the present and into the futuer:

`we have been living here for
years`.

The sense is almost that of a present perfect. The compound is used only in the persent perfect and past perfect.

denotes `possible to do` (passive,).

The present participle has the oblique form, and has the sense of a Noun:

» `I do not find it possible (or desirable) to go there`.

( in the above sentence is adverbial or absolutive (cf.241-d).

Main Verb: Past Participle

261. The main Varb as past participle is affected by the Number and Gender of the subject, or of the object.

The important subsidiaries are as follows :-

retains its meaning (`to come`), while denoting `imminence` or `immediacy`:

µ `the enemy is advancing (on us)»,
`clouds are fast gathering`.
µ means `to come away` or `to come this way`.

combined with an Intransitive main Verb denotes
`going to...` `about to.....`

`I am about to die of pain`,
± `the train is about to come`.
µ means `to go away`.

This use of with a past participle is not to be confused with the passive forms, (272).

`to fall down` is usually combined with Verbs having a
similar meaning, viz. `to fall down` and denotes `about to ....`, `going to...`:

± `the girl is about to fall down`,
`I am going to jump into the river`,

denotes `frequency` or habitual action`:

` (make it a habit to) read attentively`,
® µ ` (always) look about when you walk`.

combined with a past participle (having a passive sense)
denotes `continuity of a state`:

® `he kept lying on the bed`,
® `the book is always lying on the table`.

µ `to want` denotes `imminence`:

µ `it is about to start raining`,
µ it is about to strike ten`.

With the following subsidiaries, the main Verb has the oblique
form of the Past participle:-

denotes `continuity or imminent completion`:

¦ `continue to do your work`,
± `the snake is about to swallow up the frog`.
¦ ` he is taking away my books`.

denotes `imminent completion of something for oneself`:

`I shall read this lesson in no time,»
® ®¦ `he is about to finish off the entire food`.

similarly denotes `imminent completion of an action for some one else`:

¦ `I shall finish your work in no time`.

(j) denotes `imminent completion`:

» `the robbers are about to kill me`,

denotes `continuity of a state or of a completed action`:

¦ `he is always drunk`,
he always has a coat on`.,

Note: (1) Compound Verbs noted in (a) - (d) can be used only
in the imperative, in the present or in the habitual past. Those
noted in (g) - (i) can be used only in the present and the
habitual past. µ (a) and µ (b), however, can be
used without restriction.

It will be seen from the above discussion that the aspects most
frequently met with in Hindi are those of completion frequency,
beginning, continuity, permission, desire etc. The technical names
for these are, in order: Effective (Completive), Frequentative (or Iterative), Inceptive (or Inchoative), Continuative, Permissive and Desiderative.

Apart from the Tgerminate aspect, which has no special froms (170-d), the most important aspect, however, is the Progressive which is discussed below in detail.

PROGRESSIVE FORM ()

(a) as stated above (256-i 260 261-e and k) can be combined with a main Verb which is eighter in the asbsolutive (root) form, or in the present form or in the participle form: `he is going`, `he keeps going (habitually), `he keeps sitting`, `he keeps wearing a coat,

(b)of these, (1) alone dontes an action in progress or in process not yet complited. of the other three forms, (2) denotes a habit (not an action in progress), while (3) and (4) denote continuity of a state. Only (1), therefore, can form the progressive aspect.

It is to be noted that, while (2), (3) and (4) can be used in all Tenses and Moods ( ±, µ , , etc.) in the progressive sense, the Subsidiary is always in the past participle form (with the usual fem. and pl. modifications). Besides, it can be used only in the present and the habitual past ( - ) or in the Subjective forms , , ±, , , ±. In fact, is to be regarded as a past participle form of the compound + , and as equivalent to . This is clear from the fact that a present participle when used as an Adjective denotes the progressive aspect with the help of forms like , etc. (241).
It may also be noted that the rare progressive of the simple past (when used as future conditional) is . (322). It is evident from the above that Hindi Verbs have a regular progressive form only in those Tenses and Moods which are made with the help of a present participle. These are :-

( ) Present Indicative,
( ) Habitual Past-Indicative,
( ) Present Potential,
( ) Present Contingent,
± ( ±) Present Presumptive.

The forms in these Tenses are, of course, of the nature of a compound Verb. But having a special form and being so frequently used, they are on par with the common forms ( etc.).

263. Of the remaining Moods and Tenses,

the Imperative has no progressive form; the Indicative Past has no progressive form - except the rare
conditional [262-d and 322-c]; the Indicative Future progressive is identical with the presumptive progressive ± (but, obviously, for fear of confusion,
it is seldom used); the Present Perfect has no progressive form; the Past Perfect -do- the Optative -do- the Past Potential -do- the Past Presumptive -do- the Past Contingent -do- the Past Participle -do- the Present Participle, when used as an Adjective, makes itsprogressive either with ( ) or, less commonly with ( , See:- (d) In fact, is to be regarded as a past participle form of the compound + , and as equivalent to . This is clear from the fact that a present participle when used as an Adjective denotes the progressive aspect with the help of forms like , etc. (241).
It may also be noted that the rare progressive of the simple past (when used as future conditional) is . (322). and See:- The Present Participle represents an action as proceeding or progressing. It is progressive by nature, although with and , ot assumes a terminate chararacter. The Present Participle, therefore, has no need of a fresh Progressive form. However, a is sometimes attached to a Present Participle in order to make it a clear progressive ); the Infinitive has no progressive form; the Progressive forms of compound Verbs are made by putting the Subsidiary Verbs in the progressive, where possible; the Progressive forms of Passive are similarly made by putting in the progressive, where possible.

Verbs Compounded with Nouns or Adjectives

264. (a) There are a number of Nouns and Adjectives which can be combined with Verbs like - `to do`, `to be`, and `to give` for denoting a single verbal idea. Thus:-

`forgiveness` + `to do` denotes `to forgive`,
`memory` + `to be` denotes `to remember`,
® `view, sight` + `to give` denotes `to be seen, to come to view`.

It is important to remember that Nouns or Adjectives, when
combined with a Verb, forego their independent existence and
become a part of the Verb. They have, consequently, no grammatical relation with any other word in the sentence. Thus, in a sentence like `I forgive Ram`, the Noun is a component of the Verb, and is not related to or nor is it the object of . , obviously, is the object of the Verb . (because does
not take two objects), or as a predicative word referring to the
object (because and do not refer to the same thing. See:-

a) A Verb is a word denoting action, being, or becoming, with some reference to time and manner and used as Predicate (52): `Rama sleeps`; `he reads a book`; `they are my friends`; `he became mad`; `I gave him two books`.

(b) A Verb may be Transitive, or Intransitive (57 and 58) : reads and gave in the above sentences are Transitive, sleeps, are and became are Intransitive.

(c) Some Verbs have two Objects: `I gave him two books` therefore, is the ``Dorect``, or the ``primary`` Object, and him is the ``Indirect`` or the ``Secondary`` Object. (In most of such cases, the Primary Object answers the question ``what?``, and the Secondary Object answers `Whom?`).

(d) A Verb may denote an action as taking place at present: `he is going`; or as having taken place in the past: `he went`; or due to take place in the Future: `he will go`. It may further express a command or a wish: `go there,» `may he be happy`; or ask a question: `Will you come?`

In contrast with the above, in a sentence like `I take meal`, is not compound since here is obviously the object of and has its own existence. In the same way, `to do work` is not a compound since does have an independent existence in such sentences as `I did your work`
(where is related to and is not a component of the Verb).

It is not, therefore, justifiable to regard every Verb that is frequently combined with a Noun or an Adjective, as a Compound. The name `Compound (Verb)» must be restricted to the Verbs of the type of . No rules, however, can be laid down for identifying a true Compound. It is purely a matter of usage.

The verbs most frequently combining with a Noun or an Adjective are , , , , and ±.

some of the frequently combining with a Noun or an Adjective
are , , , , and ±.

Some of the frequently used compounds made with are:-
`to accept, to admit`,
`to forgive`,
() `to begin`,
`to see off, to bid farewell to`.

All these are Transitive. The Objects, if animate, have the oblique case with (or ¦) ; if inanimate, they are in the direct case:

µ `I forgave the thief` (neutral construction),
`begin the lesson`,
`he saw the friend off`.
`to recall` and ® `to keep in memory` may also be noted [C: or , noted under 266 (a) and (d) below.]
`I recalled (i.e. prayed) to God`,
® `Ram (always) remembered this`, but
» `I thought of my home` is not a compound

, , ± and form Intransitive compounds are of a passive nature although of active formation. The action, state etc. denoted by them is represented as experienced, suffered, enjoyed, felt etc. by or happening to, the subject which is placed in the oblique case with or-¦

Whatever the subject suffers or experiences, or whatever happens to him, is represented as taking place of itself, not as done by anybody. The thing suffered or experienced is placed in the direct case and the Verb agrees with it.

forms a large number of such compounds:-

:® `to feel unhappy`,
`to feel satisfied`,
`to have (enjoy) the right`,
`to happen to remember`,
`to happen to know`,
`to have to do`,
`to be in senses`,
® `to have fever`,
» :® `I felt unhappy (at this)»,
`Ram is satisfied`,
¦- `all have the same right`,
» `I remember`,
» `I know`,
`he has a lot to do`,
µµ ® `the child has fever`,
`heis not in his senses (has swooned)».

Note: A few compounds of which do not refer to a thing suffered, experienced etc. are Active :

(or ) `to begin` (Intransitive),
`to take leave`,
± `my studies will begin to-morrow`,
¦ `we took leave of our friends`.

similarly denotes `to get (intrans.)...», ` (to begin) to feel...`:
(or ±) `to get angry`,
`to (begin to) feel ashamed`,
`to recall`,
® `to get fever`,
`to come to senses`,
`to feel pity`,
(±) `father got angry`
`the girl felt ashamed`,
® `he gets fever everyday`,
® `mother felt pity for the beggar`.

Note: `to be of use` = `to come into use`:
¦± ? `of what use will this book be to me?`

± combines with Adjectives as well as with Nouns:

® ± `to feel hungry`,
± `to feel thirsty`,
µ¶ ± `to like`,
± `to dislike`,
± `to come to know`.

Note: Adjectives when combined with ± agree with the object in Gender and Number.

µµ ® ± `the child is hungry`,
µ¶ ± `Ram likes fruits`,
» ± `I dislike noise`,
± ... `we have come to know that...`

denotes `continuity`:

`to continue to remember`,
® `to have constant fever`,
`to remain in senses`,
» ± `I shall always remember`,
® `he has constant fever`.

and are combined with certain Abstract Nouns (derived form Verbs) ending in - [App. I 8 (5)].

® or `to come into view, to be seen`,
or `to be heard`,
» ¶ ® `I cannot see anything in this darkness`,
¦ ¦ ® `he happened to see a lion while going through the forest`.

The Verbs discussed above differ from the normal passive Verbs in as much as the latter are formed by combining a past participle with the subsidiary (or are passive by nature) and have their logical subject always in the oblique form with . Also, the normal passives denote action on the part of their logical subject, not experience.

See next chapter.

The following exceptional compounds are noteworthy:- is also combined withthe roots ® (®), and and with the Adjective `known` (and has the same sense as in 267) :

® or ® = ® `to be seen`,
= `to be heard`,
and () denote `to seem` or `to become known;
¦ ...... `it seems that......`
» `I came to know this only now`. (lit. `this became known to me only now)»,

® `to be seen` can combine with any object; it has the same sense as ® (® is dialectic and should be avoided). `to meet`, when combined with an object, has a passive sense,
`to be found or obtained or given or to be met`:
» ¦ `I found a rupee (lying) on the road`,
» `I got this book as a prize`,
`a severe punishment was given to Ram`,
» `I happened to meet my friend at the station`,
But, `I met (visited) my friend`. © ? denotes `what happened (to) ....?`:

µµ © ? `what happened to the child?`
Similarly, ¶ `something happened (to)......»

(a) and (and the substantive ) combine with infinitives (as already noted 238) and denote `necessity, obligation, requirement` etc. The compounds thus made are passive in meaning. The subject has

`Ram had to go`,
» ± `I shall have to go to Bombay`.
`the servant hjad to go to the market`.
The Infinitives here are used as Abstract Nouns.

However, when an Infinitive is Transitive, it is used as an Adjective to its object and changes its ending - to- or - ne according as the object is Feminine (sg. or pl.) or Masculine pl. The subsidiaries also agree with the object in Number and Gender :

± `the boy will have to take medicine`,
» ® `I had to write three letters`.

Note: It is not correct to say µµ or » ® as is sometimes done on the analogy of Intransitive Infinitives ( ±, etc. [see (a) above] which are Nouns.

(c)µ¦ `is wanted` or `ought to be.....` is a true passive (see 277) It can be combined with a Noun in the first sense (`is wanted`) and with an Infinitive (noun, if Intransitive and Adjective, if
Transitive) in the second sense. The subject has (or-¦)

µ¦ `Ram wants books` (literally, books are wanted by (for) Ram)»,

© µ¦ `what do you want ? (What is wanted by you ?),
µ¦ `you ought togo` (Infinitive Noun),
µ¦ `you ought to read books` (Infinitive Adjective).

Note: (i) µ¦ is as incorrect as

However, µ¦ does not modify (as and do). µ¦ as a plural of µ¦ ( µ¦) is occasionally met with, but had better be doscarded in the sense `to be known` usually combines with Infinitives and some pronouns like ©, ¶ etc. :

? `do you know how to read?`
» ¶ `I know nothing`,
`the boy doesn`t even know how to speak`.

CHAPTER XXXIV

The Passive Voice has already (171-b) been defined as the form of a verb which repersents the subject as the upon. The grammatical subject
(``of which somthing has been said ``) in this Voice is the logical object - the preson or the thing towards whom the cation is directed. The logical subject -the dore- is not always mentioned. But when the logical subject is mentioned, it has invariably the oblique form with . Only Transitive Verbs can have Passive Voice
(a) In a sentence like, `the enemy` who has been acted upon (killed). , therefore, isthe real object-towards whome the action of killed has been dircted.
(b) In a sentece like » µ [`I cannot take tea` (literally, `tea cannot be durnk by me`)], `tea` is the grammatical subject. But it is, in fact, the object of `drink`. The logical subjict is `I`, which is mentioned here and has the oblique form with ``.
(c) In both the above sentences, the Objects ( and µ) are in the Direct case and the Verbs ( ± and ) agree with them in Number, Gender and Person. The construction, thus, is objectival. A Passive does not admit of subjectival construction, because the logical Subject is always in the Oblique Case.

The Passive, however, does have the neutral construction where the Verb has masc. third person, singular form,agreeing neither with the logical Subject (which is seldom mentioned), nor with the Object. This, for example is the case in ± `Kamala was called` (literally, `with reference to Kamala, it was called`). Who called Kamala is not mentioned and `Kamala` the Object has the Oblique Case with . This construction is commonly used when the Object is Animate, although ± is equally correct.

(a) But whatever the construction, the formation of Passive Voice is regular. It is simply made by combining the Verb `to go` with the Past Participle of the main root:

(b) The Compound Verb thus made is treated like an ordinary Verb, the Past Participle (main Verb) agreeing with the Object in Number and Gender and the subsidiary being modified to form Aspect, Mood and Tense, (cf 261) :

The Infinitive form is , the Present Participle is , and Past Participle is ± (or ). See:- The Present Participle represents an action as proceeding or progressing. It is progressive by nature, although with and , ot assumes a terminate chararacter. The Present Participle, therefore, has no need of a fresh Progressive form. However, a is sometimes attached to a Present Participle in order to make it a clear progressive (241-b and 262-d).

The progressive of Present Participle is a further attempt at expressing the progressive aspect with perfect clarity, and forms like ± `the running train` and ± `the falling rain` are being used especially in poetry. They are, however, hardly necessary.

If the main Verb has two Objects, the secondary Object has (or-¦ with Pronouns) and the primary Object is put in the Direct Case, with which the Verb agrees:

(a) It is not usual to mention the logical Subject (the ``doer``) of a Passive Verb, unless absolutely necessary. The Subject, thus, has to be mentioned when its ability or inability to do something is expressed:

The ``doer``, if mentioned, has .

(b) Apart from the above (`ability` - `inability` case), a logical Subject may sometimes have to be mentioned for the sake of clarity etc. In such cases, may be substituted by or `at the hands of....`, or in affected style by .
() ±
± (affected style)
(c) Subjectless Passives are much more frequent:

(a) Apart from the passives discussed above, there are a large number of Verbs which are Passive by nature (without the help of a subsidiary or nominal compound). Some of these have been mentioned in 248 and 249 (d):

(b) All these are, of course, Intransitive in form. Their Active forms are naturally Transitive. Both the Passive and the Active forms now exist as independent Verbs, the Passive usually having short vowels and the Active having the corresponding long vowels :

Passive Active

The Active forms are used like ordinary Transitive Verbs. They are not Causals. and they can form a Passive as well: , ® , , etc. These Passives differ from the natural Passives [noted in (a) above] in signification. The Natural Passives represent the action as happening of itself-spontaneously, and naturally: there is not the slightest hint of its being done by somebody. Hence the doer is not mentioned:

The Passives, on the other hand, represent the action as being performed by a doer who may or may not be mentioned, but can be guessed:

The Passive Verbs of the type are usually called ``Neuter Verbs``. It would, perhaps, be better to call these Verbs ``Natural Passives`` or ``Original Passives``.

It is, however, to be noted that when ability or inability to do something is to be denoted, even a Natural Passive needs a logical subject, which as usual, has the Oblique form with :

Note: With a first person doer, ``inability`` to do something may imply ``unwillingeness``: » may mean `I am not willing to undertake the heavy task of cutting this tree`.

`to be made` is also used in the sense `possible to do` when it is usually combined with the Subsidiary (256-g). The subject, as in (e) is almost always mentioned:-

» ±
`I will do whatever is possible for me to do` (or `whatever I am capable of doing`),

`to happen`, `to be found or met with`, and ® `to be seen` have already been noted above (269 b-c-d) as Passive denoting experience etc. `to meet` is also Active. But ® is an original Passive denoting experience, etc. `to meet ` is also Active. But ® is an original Passive derived form ® `to see`. It is, however, used only as a Passive of experience. (269-b).

µ¦ is specially to be noted. It has already been discussed in 270 c. µ¦ is, in fact, a true passive derived from µ `to want`. In form, it is an old indicative present passive, in third person singular. The plural form could be µ¦. But µ¦ is now felt as an isolated and unchangeable form, so µ¦ is incorrect.]

THE IMPERSONAL VOICE

The Impersonal Voice, as stated earlier (171-c), is restricted to Intransitive Verbs, and is always in the neutral construction (273-c) being always in the third person singular masculine form. The Verb has the form of a passive, viz. past participle of the main Verb + (272-a)
µ, `come, let us go to sleep` (literally, `let it be slept`).
The subject is not mentioned in the above sentence. Where it is mentioned, it is oblique form with and is represented, as in the passive (273-c) as ``able`` or ``unable`` to do something:
» µ `I cannot walk` (lit. `It cannot be walked by me`).

Note: The above sentence differs from a sentence in passive - » µ (271-b) - only in so far as it has an Intransitive Verb which, naturally, does not have to agree with an object because none exists. Otherwise, the formation and expression of the two sentences are identical.
The Impersonal Voice, thus, is a variety of the Passive, as applied to Intransitive Verbs. The definition of the Passive, ``it represents the (grammatical) subjects as acted upon``, is, obviously, not applicable to the Impersonal since there is no logical object which alone is the (grammatical) subject of a Passive Verb. In this respect, the Impersonal Voice is similar to the Active as, like the Active, it represents the subject (where it is mentioned) as ``doing`` something. (171).

CHAPTER XXXV

Abverbs, Post-Postions, Conjunction
and Interjection

An Adverb is a word that modifies or qualifies a Verb i.e.
restricts it in some way. In `the boy is here,» `I came to-day`, and `he writes carefully,» the words here, to-day and carefully are Adverbs: they restrict the signification
of the Verbs. The boy is here, not elsewhere; I came to-day, neither yesterday nor anyearlier day; he writes carefully not carelessly or Indifferently.

In a sentence like `he writes very carefully`, the word very
is also an Adverb, since it further restricts the Verb; he writes not with ordinary care, but with great care. Very, however, restricts the Verb indirectly, by restricting the other Adverb, carefully, which restricts the Verb directly. An Adverb may, therefore, qualify another Adverb. The same word very however, has a different function in a very good boy: it modifies the Adjective good which in its turn modifies the Noun boy. It is usual to regard this very and similar words as Adverbs even when they modify an Adjective. But, in fact, they too are (indirect) Adjectives, and are treated as such in Hindi, undergoing the same changes due to Number and Gender as affect an ordinary Adjective:

Some of these Adjective-modifying words have been noted in 141.

Hindi Adverbs can be divided into two classes:

those formed from pronouns, and the rest.

Bothe these classes may be subdivided into various groups according to their meaning.

The pronominal Adverbs, like the pronominal Adjectives (137) are derived from Demonstrative, Relative and Interrogative Pronouns. These are:- `now`, `here`, `hither`, `thus` (from ); - - `there`, `thither`, (from ); `when`, `where`, `whither`, `as` (from ); `when?`, `where`, `whither?`, © `why?` from (); `then`, `there`, `thither`, `so, in the same way` (from ). and (except in proverbs) are archaic or dialectic and as such should not be used. The other two Adverbs derived from [ the archaic correlative Pronoun 110 (iii), viz. and ] are affiliated to (so that the second series in the above list would be , ). Note that © does not mean `how`. The word for `how` is (287), or © (µµ 285-1).

Of the Pronominal adverbs listed above:

(a) , , and are Adverbs of Time;
(b) , and are Adverbs of Place;
(c) , , and are Adverbs of Direction;
(d) , , © () and are Adverbs of Manner

All these Adverbs can append the emphatic particle (294 a): `this very direction, just hither`, `in that very direction, just thither`. With etc. and etc., however, combines in Sandhi, as already noted in 50-c and e:

The following special uses of the pronominal Adverbs may be noted: like the English `now` (introductory) may denote `then` in narration etc.
± `now did the Lord tell Arjuna`. denotes `just now`; but .... = `just....when`, or `no sooner......than`:
µ ± ± `I had just reached the station when the train arriver` or `no sooner had I reached the station than the train arrived`. is not an emphatic interrogative. It denotes `ever, sometimes, (at) some (one) time`:

The interrogation in the first sentence is due to © (expressed or implied, 112-ii), and not due to .

:- is not an emphatic interrogative. It denotes `somewhere, at some (or, any) place`:

± `he has gone somewhere`,
± `I dropped my pen somewhere`.
also denotes `much, far, to a great extent`;
» `he is much older than I`.
- = `at some places`, (App. III 5-f),
= `nowhere` = `everywhere`,
- = `wherever`, --=`somewhere or the other`.

- denotes `sometimes, occasionally` (App. III 5-f)
= `never` (but the two words can be interspaced by an Object, an Adverb etc.):
» µ ® `he never wrote a letter to me`.
- - = `sometime or other` (App. III 5-j)
= `whenever`.

`just when (as)» (relative) = and `whenever` are now less frequent, the former having been replaced by [ (i) below],
and the latter by (c above).

is not an emphatic interrogative. It denotes `somewhere, at some (or, any) place`:

± `he has gone somewhere`,
± `I dropped my pen somewhere`.
also denotes `much, far, to a great extent`;
» `he is much older than I`.
- = `at some places`, (App. III 5-f),
= `nowhere` = `everywhere`,
- = `wherever`, --=`somewhere or the other`. (App. III 5-j)

Note:- In rhetorical-Interrogative sentences, and
denote `ever, at all`, when the question expresses ``an emphatical contrary assertion``:

() ? `do you ever (at all) listen to me ?` (=`you never listen to me`).

The Verb in such sentences is followed by a . is used in a similar sense in negative rhetorical-Interrogative sentences, where it expresses undesirability of a possible occurrence, action etc.
The sentence usually contains a , except if the Verb is potential (229):

.... = `where on the one hand....where on the other`,
.... = `here (at one place)....there (at another place)», or `now.............now`,
....=`sometimes..............sometimes`,
.....= `now.........now`, or `first.........then`.
All these have the force of a conjunction, and may be called `Conjunctive Adverbs`. - = `hither and thither`.
...... = `on the one hand............., on the other...........` (Conjunctive),
.............. = `here...........there` (Conjunctive). ....- denotes proportionately (Conjunctive). - is sometimes omitted.

.... = `no sooner......than` (Conjunctive).
denotes `for no particular reason or purpose`,`in vain`, `casually;

(, ) `in the same condition, order or way as before`:
even in old age, his teeth are in the sam (sound) condition`. © in the sense of `how` is archaic (282-iii).
, used as a correlative of `when` or of `if`, signifies `then`:
µ ± `when he got angry, (then) he began to shout`,
±¦ ¶± `if you go there, (then) you will repent`. See :- (c) is emphatic, sometimes denoting contrast:
`he has come`,
» `first let me go`,
`call Ram` or `just call Ram`,
, `the book was found, (but) not the pen`,
, `he did come near me, but did not speak`.

As a negative Adverb (293-b-ii). For the adverbial , 285-m; for conjunctive ,and See:- .... `if .....then`, (285-m); `although`; = =`yet even so`; .... `though....yet`:
µ, `I can go there if you so want`.
All the pronominal Adverbs, including those combined with (but excluding those denoting manner), may be used as Nouns and attach the case-signs (`from, since`) (`to` with Adverbs of place), (`at` with Adverbs of place only) and (`of`), besides the preposition (`upto`) 299-d):

With pronominal (and other) Adverbs denoting time, has occasionally the sense of (from, since):
`since this hour` `since when?`, or `how
long` (`a long time ago`).
± ± `leaving now, I shall return in the evening`,
`how long has he been sitting here?`.
`of some place, of some standing`, or `confounded` ....etc.
! `he thinks he is a great scholar`
`scholar, indeed`!
µ , µ ! `get away, you confounded thief !`

(a) The pronominal Adjectives ¦, , , , (137 a), in their oblique forms ¦, , etc. are used as Adverbs of Manner;

¦ `in this manne, thus`,
? `how?`, `why?` etc.
All these have more or less the same meaning as , , © etc. and can append .
() ¦, etc. and , , etc. can be used as Adverbs of manner and degree:
¦ ±...... `I ran so (fast)........»
....... `he cried so much.......`

¶, ¶ - ¶ `a little`, `partly`, `to some extent`, and -¶ `to a great extent`, `a great deal` are also used adverbially (111 and 118-16, 15):
¶ `he smiled a little`,
® ¶-¶ `the fever has partly (to some extent) subsided`,
-¶ `the water (level) in the river has gone
± down a great deal`. prrefixed to a numeral denotes `about, some, approximately`. (111-iii and 149). =`in the meanwhile` is an Adverb of time. - (109-c) may be used as an Adverb of manner and denotes `of one`s own accord, spontaneously`:
- µ ± `he went away of his own accord, -- (App, III 5-h) is also an Adverb of manner denoting `spontaneously` or `aside`. -- = `spontaneously` = [109 (c) and App.III 5 (h)]. © is used adverbially in several senses, for which see © is also used as Adverb expressing emphatic negation:
© , `call him a man? he is a demon`;
µµ © , ± `it`s not a child, it`s a rose.`
© , `dose he run? he flies!`
« © ± `you will win the case? impossible! See :-The pair © ....© ©-© `which things?`, `what things?`:
©-© ¦ ? `what things has brother brought of situation, usually for the worse. is also adverbial (conjunctive) in sense.for ¶....¶ as an Adverb, see:- ¶.....¶ `some....some` [Conjunctive. [See , , ± or `but`, or `but also, besides, but, on the other hand`;
¶ ± , ()
`I have done no charm to you; on the other hand, I have rendered you a service`.
`but` is now obsolete.]:

Adverbs other than the pronominal may also be divided into various groups. Some of these are Adjectives used as Adverbs:
(¶) `I felt a little afraid`,
`she cried a great deal`.
Others are Nouns+some case-sings used adverbially:
µ `I could reach there with great difficulty`.
Still others are formed from Verbs:
- ± `I got tired while running`. (241-c--242-c); while a large number are `original` Adverbs are:

Some of the Adjectives used as adverbs are:
`a little`, `much, very. agreat deal`,
- `to some extent`, µ¶ `well`,
`ill`, ` (at) first`,
`less`, `secondly` etc.,
-- `at least` (App. `very little`,
III, 5-i) `much` etc.
µ¶ ± `he sings very well`,
`first do your work`.

(a) Nouns used as adverbs usually have the case-signs - (97-f), (98-d), (99-b) and (100-b-c):

`in the evening`, `attentively`,
`during day`, `after coming` etc.

However, Nouns denoting time which is specified by an Adjective (or a word used as an Adjective), or even otherwise, are generally used with out the case-signs and (cf 97-f):

() `last night I returned late`,
? `where were you that day?`.
Similarly, `at that time`,
`at this very moment, immediately`,
¦ ` (on) one day`,
`in those days` (where has retained the oblique form, although has been dropped) etc.

The same principle is followed in the case of Nouns which denoote (unaided by an Adjective) a specific time, and which are now felt mor or less as ``original`` Adverbs (see:- The more important ``Original`` Adverbs may be divided into the following groups according to their meaning. Many of these are, in fact, Nouns or Adjectives with case-signs (and modifications due to them) omitted or dropped or worn out by use. Adverbs of Time:
`to-day` (also a noun)
`to-morroe` or `yesterday` or `day afer to-morrow` (also anoun),
- `now-adays,»
or or `every day` (also noun),
() `afterwards`,
`in the morniing` ( is a noun),
`at dawn` ( is a noun),
- `again and again,» `repeatedly`,
¦ or or or `immediately,»
or ± `continuously`,
or `always`,
`again`, `then`,
: or © `often`,
: by degrees, gradually`,: `possibly`, : accordingly,»
`three days back or hence`, (also a noun) and `four days back or hence` (also a noun) are in use. Adverbs of Place:

± `before, in front`, ¶ `behind, at the back`,
or `near` `on all sides`,
`far` `in front`,
¤ `above`, µ `below`,
`together`, ± `away, apart`,
`to the right`, `to the left`,

`towards`, `this way`
`that way`, `across`, `outside`, or `inside` etc.
(c)Adverbs of Manner:
or µ or or ¦¦ `suddenly, abruptly`,
() Quickly, speedily`, () or -, `slowly, by degrees`,
or surely`,
`exactly`, µ or µµ `truely`, , `in vain, vainly,» `on foot`. : `by degrees`.
(d) Adverbs of Degree:
`completely, entirely,» : `almost`,
±± `almost, nearly`, `a little`,
`more`, , , `only`, etc.).Thus, `to-day, this day`, `to-morrow` or `yesterday`, `day before yesterday` or `day after to-morrow`, etc. are used without or . Similarly, the Noun when it denotes `last night`, is used without or . The suffixes (or particles) and when attached to Nouns denoting time, signify `only` and `the whole....` respectively (294-e-f).

Thus-
`just a moment`, `the whole day`,
`the whole night`, `one whole hour`.
and , however, are synonymous with . These Nouns can be used as Adverbs without attaching :
`he works the whole night`,
But, `he works at night`,
? `where were you the whole day?`,
(or ) `stop here (for) a moment`.

Of the Verbs used as Adverbs, Participles (Present and Past) and the Absolutive are the most frequent. See :- (a) The Present Participle can be used like an ordinary Adjective:

Occasionally, however, (for the ske of clarity) a , or ¦ etc.
Both the Present Participle and the Auxiliary (which is the Past Participle form of ) must agree with the Noun they qualify. Present Participles can also be used as Adverbs (usually as Adverbs of time and manner), in which case they have the oblique (-¦) form, and are often repeated:

When a Present Participle is used as part of the Predicate, it has an adverbial sense, and consequently the oblique form:

With , a Present Participle (oblique) denotes ``immediately after``, ``as soon as``:

A Present Participle, like other Adjectives, can be used also as a Noun, in which case it is declined like an - Noun (90) :

`as soon as I came`,
±¦ ¦ `since he went`,
`via Bombay`, etc.

The more important ``Original`` Adverbs may be divided into the following groups according to their meaning. Many of these are, in fact, Nouns or Adjectives with case-signs (and modifications due to them) omitted or dropped or worn out by use. Adverbs of Time:
`to-day` (also a noun)
`to-morroe` or `yesterday` or `day afer to-morrow` (also anoun),
- `now-adays,»
or or `every day` (also noun),
() `afterwards`,
`in the morniing` ( is a noun),
`at dawn` ( is a noun),
- `again and again,» `repeatedly`,
¦ or or or `immediately,»
or ± `continuously`,
or `always`,
`again`, `then`,
: or © `often`,
: by degrees, gradually`,: `possibly`, : accordingly,»
`three days back or hence`, (also a noun) and `four days back or hence` (also a noun) are in use. Adverbs of Place:

± `before, in front`, ¶ `behind, at the back`,
or `near` `on all sides`,
`far` `in front`,
¤ `above`, µ `below`,
`together`, ± `away, apart`,
`to the right`, `to the left`,

`towards`, `this way`
`that way`, `across`, `outside`, or `inside` etc.
(c)Adverbs of Manner:
or µ or or ¦¦ `suddenly, abruptly`,
() Quickly, speedily`, () or -, `slowly, by degrees`,
or surely`,
`exactly`, µ or µµ `truely`, , `in vain, vainly,» `on foot`. : `by degrees`.
(d) Adverbs of Degree:
`completely, entirely,» : `almost`,
±± `almost, nearly`, `a little`,
`more`, , , `only`, etc.

293. Adverbs of affirmation and Negation are:
,, , , , and

is the simple affirmative `yes`,
is the polite form, and
is polite emphatic.
or or µ `certainly, surely, undoubtedly,» are also affirmatives
© ? `why not`, ? `then ?`, © ? or ©? `what else?` are similarly emphatic, the last three being informal and colloquial. Of the three negative Adverbs, can be used, the polite form being or (slightly emphatic).
© ? ( ).
!: is used as an emphatic negative reply, denoting surprise, disapproval etc. © ? ! `have you taken my book?` `No indeed!` See :-(c) is emphatic, sometimes denoting contrast:
`he has come`,
» `first let me go`,
`call Ram` or `just call Ram`,
, `the book was found, (but) not the pen`,
, `he did come near me, but did not speak`.

As a negative Adverb (293-b-ii). For the adverbial , 285-m; for conjunctive ,
In negative sentence, is used in the Indicative and the Presumptive moods only: ±, ¤±, ± ± ± etc. But ¦ (Oprative) and (Imperative) etc. are wrong. In the negative present and present perfect forms, is usually omitted: | ? . In the progressive forms, however, is not omitted: . See:- The negative forms are made with the help of the particle placed immediately before the Verb. But in the negative sentence , , etc.are, as a rule, omitted:
`he does not go`,

, `Ram does not study in a school, he studies at home. `

is used only in the Imperative and is somewhat curt. As a mild prohibitive, is more idiomatic. In the Optative, is almost exclusively the choice:
, , ¦ (Imperative);
¦, ¤ (Optative). .... `neither......nor` as a conjunction (302-a-ii) is common for all tenses and moods, and are not used in this sense. ±; , ®, . is used as the final word in an Interrogative sentence to denote affirmation, or when an affirmative answer is expected:
µ± ? `you will come with me, won`t you ?`. , (or ), (or ) are also used as Nouns, usually feminine:

`I accepted`, (lit, `I said `yes`)»,
`I refised` (lit. `I said `no`)».

PARTICLES

Besides the Verb- (or Adverb-) modifying Adverbs, which usually precede the Verb they modify but can (if necessary) be separated from it, there are a number of adverbial words of a subsidiary nature, which are attached to a particular word inthe seentence for denoting emphasis, contrast etc., and invariably follow it. These are called `Particles`. They can usually be attached to any word in the sentence.

The more important Hindi particles are the following:

denotes either emphasis or is equivalent of `alone` (as in `you alone`, `he alone` etc.) :
`to be sure, it is Ram who has come` or `Ram alone (only) has come`.
Pronouns and pronominal Adjectives and Adverbs combined with have already been discussed (118-29, 284). For (used both as an Adjective and as an Adverbs combined with have already been discussed (118-29, 284). For (used both as an Adjective and as an Adverb), see :- Of these, (occasionally followed by ) [294 (a)] has an adjectival (intensifying) force and qualifies a Noun or Pronoun which it usually follows, and which, as a rule, is the logical subject of the sentence. See, however, (ii) below.

() ± `Ram himself had gone there`;

» ± `I shall have to go myself`;

() ¦± `they themselves will come`;

® `Ram is himself hungry`;

® `he himself has written this letter`.

Further uses of will be illustrated by the following sentences:
µ ± ± `as soon as I came, the thief ran away`,
`I was just leaving`,
¤± `I will go`,
± ` I did go`,
± `this work will have to be done to-day`,
? µ¶ `how are you ?` `Fairly well, (possibly),»
© , `he didn`t just drink Sherbat, he emptied
® (drained ) the bottle itself (the entire bottle)»,
¶ `in a very few days`,
¶ `something quite different`. = `also`. But note the following special uses:
± `in spite of my going there, I did not succeed`,
± ± ` will you go or just keep sitting ?`,
or `do let it go (be), (it is not worthwhile)».
= `even` in such sentences as -
`he did not even come here`.
`anyone`, `whosoever (relative), ¶ = `anything`, `even thus`, `even otherwise`, `yet eveb so` (conjunction 302-b-ii), `even now`, `even then, even so`, (conjunction 302-b-ii), `even now`, `even then, even so`, `whensoever`, `whersoever` (relative), `anywhere`, `in any place whatsoever` etc.(See:- The suffixes (or particles) and when attached to Nouns denoting time, signify `only` and `the whole....` respectively (294-e-f).

Thus-
`just a moment`, `the whole day`,
`the whole night`, `one whole hour`.
and , however, are synonymous with . These Nouns can be used as Adverbs without attaching :
`he works the whole night`,
But, `he works at night`,
? `where were you the whole day?`,
(or ) `stop here (for) a moment`.
`the entire country`, `the whole day`,
`the whole night`, `the whole day`,
`just a moment`.
`let him do obly (just) this much`,
, ± `you have only read, not studied`.
In the two sentences, can be replaced by . See :- is, in fact, the Absolutive (243) of the root `to fill`:

= filling the handful`,
± = ± filling (stretching) a yard measure` etc.

The meaning `entire, whole` (and `only`) has evolved out of `filling, full`. It could, like the English-ful, be regarded as a suffix but for the fact that it is still felt as a separate word, and can, besides, be attached to Adjectives and Verbs, as well as to Nouns (and be synonymous with ) cf. 294-e.

is a Sanskrit suffix (originally the noun `measurement`) denoting `only` or `whole`. In Sanskrit, it used to be attached to or tagged on to the main word:

`just an agent or cause`, `only learning`, `just a moment`, `the entire universe`, `the entire humanity`,
Hoowever, in Hindi, has now come into use as an equivalent of `only` or `only`, `alone` and as a seprate word: µ ¦ `Rupees fifty only`. Now it is also used before the main word:
± `only, I did not go there`.

is, in fact, the Absolutive (243) of the root `to fill`:

= filling the handful`,
± = ± filling (stretching) a yard measure` etc.

The meaning `entire, whole` (and `only`) has evolved out of `filling, full`. It could, like the English-ful, be regarded as a suffix but for the fact that it is still felt as a separate word, and can, besides, be attached to Adjectives and Verbs, as well as to Nouns (and be synonymous with ) cf. 294-e.

CHAPTER XXXVI

Preposition is a word which indicates a relation between a Noun or a Pronoun and a Noun, Pronoun or Verb (66): A book for you; A bunch of flowers; Come with me. In Hindi, these words are placed after the Noun or Pronoun whose relation with another Noun etc. they denote. They may, therefore, be called post-positions. The case-signs , , etc. are Post-positions of a special nature (95).

The Post-positions are attached to a Noun or a Pronoun sually with the help of the case-sign (or- in the case of first and second person Pronouns and - in reflexive which are in the oblique form (or -, -):

`along with Ram`, `with me` `with me, with sombody`. The case-sign may sometimes be omitted: () `across the river`, () ¶, `behind the back`. A few Post-positions are attacned with the help of se: » `before me`, `outside the house`. Some are attached directly : `till the end`.

(a) All Post-positions, except are, in fact, Adverbs: they limit the force fo the Verb as Adverbs do. The only difference between the two is that a Post-position modifies a Verb with the help of a Noun or a Pronoun, while an Adverb does it independently:

But in `he is Ram`s brother` etc., is adjectival.

In Hindi, a Noun or a Pronoun combined with a Post-position is often used as a Noun and can attach case-signs ;

In such cases, the Post-positions do not have an adverbial force.

Some of the important Post-positions are given below:
a.The following are used with (or - ) :-
`within` ( ) `according to` ( ) ± `facing, in front of, `in front of` ( ) beyond` ( ±) ¶ `behind` ( ¶) ¤ `above, upon` ( ¤) µ `below, under` ( µ) `near, with` ( , ) `around ( ) `within, in` ( )
`before` ( ) `after` ( )
`across` ( ) or `through` ( , ) ¦ or `for` ( ¦) or `except` ( ) `without`, ( ) © or `besides` ( ©) `instead of` (® ) `equal` ( ) `against` ( ) ± or `worthy` ( ±, ) `contrary to` ( ) `with ( ) ` (live) with or, `at the place `because of` ( ) of` ( `at the place) `about, concerning` ( ). `on account of` (® )

The following have instead of :-
or `towards` ( ) or `like` ( ) ® `for the sake of` ( ®) or `in comparison to` ( ). The following have a :-
`before (also ) ( ) `outside` (also )
`far` ( ) ( ). The following are attached directly :-
or `upto, until` `under` (µ± )
( , ) `across` (also with ) `through` (also with ) ( ) ( ). The following are attached directlyto , , , , usually when referring to `things`:-

The Post-positions , and () are sometimes used, for the sake of emphasis, before the Noun which they govern:-

CHAPTER XXXVII

Conjunctions are words which join together or connect words, sentences, or Parts of a sentence (67): Mother and child came. (2) Is it good or bad? (3) I came, but you had gone. (4) you said that you would come. (5) The servant will wait until you come.

It is, however, not often that a conjunction connects two words, sentences, `mother came` and `child came` which have been contracted into one for the sake of economy. Similarly, `is it good or bad` is contracted from `isit good` and `is it bad`. Only in sentences like, `put two and two together`, or `Sita and Kamla are cousin` can a conjuntion be said to connect two words. In the third example, `I came but you had gone`, the two smaller sentences are independent of each other. In the fourth sentence, however, `you would come` is subordinate to `you said`, since it functions as the object of `said`. In the last sentence, `until you come` is subordinate sentences so the main sentences to the main sentence are called Subordinating. `and`, `or`, and `but` in the above examples are Co-ordinating; `that` and `until` are subordinating. Some of the important Hindi Conjunctions are given below:- Co-0rdinating or `and`; ¦ (or ¦) `as well as`; ± ¦ `Mahatma Gandhi preached truth as well as non-violence`. It is desirable to restrict the use of ¦ for `as well as` and not to use it as just a synonym of .
or `or` `or` (colloquial); ..... `neither....nor` (293-d): (293-b 294-c) or `otherwise, or else»; ............. `either............or`; `or`;
µ...........µ `whether........or`, ` (but)O not`:
® ® () ? `have you taken your food, or not ?`, `are you going or not?` (colloquial),» µ `he takes neither tea nor coffee` ( ) `work hard, otherwise you will fail`, ±
`either you go or I (go)»,
µ , µ ... `whether you remain or go......`,
, `I have come to see my friend,
not you`
`or` is now archaic.
, , ± or `but`, or `but also, besides, but, on the other hand`;
¶ ± , ()
`I have done no charm to you; on the other hand, I have rendered you a service`.
`but` is now obsolete. ¦, ¦, : `therefor, hence, consequently`; `so` (archaic.)
a.Subordinating © `because`; ¦.... `so that, for the purpose that.....`:
¦ ¦ ± `I have come here so that I may ask you for a book`. .... `if .....then`, (285-m); `although`; = =`yet even so`; .... `though....yet`:
µ, `I can go there if you so want`.
`that`; `that is` :
....`I told him that.......`;
`` , `pronouns`, i.e. we, thou, you etc.

CHAPTER XXXVIII

An Interjection is a word expressing some emotion (pain, pleasure, anger, surprise, dislike, disgust etc.): Oh! Alas ! An Interjection, like a noun in the vocative case (102), has no grammatical relation with any other word in the sentence. It is, in fact, a sentence in itself. (Oh ! = `I am surprised`, or `It is surprising`).

In Hindi, most of the Interjections are used as independent words. Some, however, are prefixed to a Noun in the vocative case. (See : The vocative form is identical with the oblique, except that in the plural, loss its nasalization. There are no case-signs but certain Interjections () ! Boy!` () `Boys!`

(¦) ! Girl!` () `Girls!`

! `O God!` µ `O wretch!`.

But µµ! `Uncle!` ! `Grandpa! etc. do not change.

Note: The nasalized (-) forms should never be used for vocative plural, as is sometimes done by careless writers.):

± ! O God!` ! `Boy!`.

The following are the more important interjections in Hindi: ! ! ! ! © ! (surprise)
! ! ® ! ! (applause)
! ! ! ! ! (sorrow, grief) ! !
! ! - ! (joy)
¶:! ! © ! (disgust-disapproval)
! ! (distress.)

Certain nouns, pronouns, adjectives and verbs are also used as interjections:
Noun:- ! ! (sympathy or disapproval)
! (surprise or distress)
Adjective:- µ¶ ! (surprise)
Pronoun:- © ! (surprise)
Verb:- µ ! (rebuke)
! (distress) Some of the interjections can be used as nouns:

CHAPTER XXXIX

In the first Person plural, feminine forms of verbs are now getting obsolete. Now-a-days, women speak of themselves as , ±, ± etc. In the singular, however, the Verb has the singular forms , ±, ± etc.

The usage has naturally affected Adjectives also, and in some places, it is no longer usual for women to say µ¶ (`we are all right`, or, `we are doing well`). They would rather say µ¶ .

This usage (or reluctance of women to retain indistinctive feminine Gender with rreference to themselves !) has further resulted in their preference for Plural over Singular of the first Person Pronoun, since Masculine forms of Sinngular Verbs ( etc.) are, at present, confined strictly to Masculinc Subjects. A modern woman would, thus, speak of herself as rather than as .

NUMBER

With Nouns, the honorific plural (78-a) is restricted to the direct case, and even so only Masculine - Nous of the type (80-b) have the Plura forms.

Thus, speaking of a single person, we can say ¦ `his son has come`; but not which would mean, `call their sons`. For a single son, we can only say , whether we `honour` the son or not. ¦ ±¦ `his son was called`, however, is all right, since here is in the direct case (the Verb being Passive).

Words like µµ, , etc., of course, do not change (80-exceptions); only the Verbs and the Adjectives referring to them have the plural form:

¶ µµ ¦ `my younger uncle has come,.

Feminine nouns, similarly, remain unchanged, the Verb alone being in the plural (not ¦) `my mother has come`; (not ) `his daughter says`.

The Pronouns referring to any Noun in honorific plural have the regular plural forms: µµ `this is my uncle`,

`she is my elder sister`.

, ± `the President is arriving here to-morrow. Preparations for his welcome are afoot`.

(97)

(a) A pronoun referring to a person, when used as an object always attaches or its equivalents -¦ or - . We can say ® (objectival construction) or ® (neutral construction). But we cannot say ®. When refers to etc., we must say () ®. This is due to the fact that or refers is to a particular being. Consequently, ® is slipshod.

(b) ±, ± ¦ etc. are formal or affected, though frequently met with. Inanimate objects had better be used without ( ¦ ±¦, ± ¦ ¦) except with Transitive Verbs of incomplete predication, such as, ±, » ±.

With Nouns denoting time, both and are used. is generally attached when the Noun denotes a point of time and when it denotes a period.

= `at` and = `during`.

and may both be omiotted iwhen the Noan is qualified:

But , . is, however, not omitted with Nouns denoting days of the week or dates:

, µ ® etc.

(a) (-¦, -) is regularly attached to an object receiving greetings, homage, salute, thanks, congratulations, censure, etc. (with or without a Verb requiring two objects):

± , , , © !

(b) (-¦, -) is also attached for denoting concern, gain, loss etc. to a person (cf 266).

© ! `how are you concerned with this?,»

© ? `why do you bother ?,»

`Ram gained, lost`.

(98)

denotes cause in µµ , and association in or » . , and in these sentences are not objects (towards which action is directed), although in the corresponding English sentences `the child fears the dogs`, `Ravana fought Ram`, and `Mohan met me`, dog, Ravana and me would be treated as objects.

(101)

A Noun or Pronoun + and the corresponding forms of , etc. are, in fact, adjectives (eding in- ).

is `Ram-owned book`, and

is `gold-made bangle`.

It is due to the adjectival nature of these , forms that they change to , , and as all - ending adjectives do.

315. A peculiar use of , , in its oblique form , , is met with in such sentences as:-

¦ `a king had three queens`,

¦ `I have one sister`.

These or forms are, obviously, not adjectival: the Nouns following them are Feminine. They denote, like the English `have`, experience of the existence of `queens` and `sister` as related to `king` and `I`. This emphasis is not upon the relationship or possession, but upon the fact that they exist. (we can perhaps supply words like , , after , etc.) ¦ , on the other hand, empgasises the relationship and would mean `there were three queens living with or married to a king`.

», » (114)

With pronouns, the forms and , a pronominal case-sign would have been completely discarded but for its utility in the adjectival use of Pronouns. In such phrases as » ¦, ± . (127), -¦ or - forms cannot be used.

(120

(reflexive, like , , , etc.) is an Adjective. It replaces the latter in every case where they refer to the logical subject of the sentence (``the doer``), whether it (the subject) is in the Direct Case, or in the Oblique Case with , or (in Passive Voice), or with (266-70).

In the direct case and oblique with , the logical subject is identical with the grammatical: , :

A logical subject in the oblique with or is not the grammatical subject-that position is occupied by the logical object:

» (») µ¶ ± ,

» .

In all the four sentences, has replaced because (the person referred to by ) is the logical subject in all the four.

But in a sentence like » , cannot be replaced by because is the subject here and not .

Irregular or loose use of is met with in such sentences as or `send him to his house.` The former sentence could also mean `send him to your house`, which is really its correct signification, since must refer to the implied subject `you`. is sometimes used for denoting (or )=+ (or ) in such sentences as:-

`this house is ours (yours and mine)», where the person spoken to is included in either, as a matter of fact,or out of friendliness or humility on the part of the speaker (the house actually belonging to the speaker alone).

A further extension of the ``friendliness or humility`` is achieved by saying for .

Progressive Aspect (170-2)

The progressive form represents an act as going on, as progresing or continuing. It cannot, therefore, be used with such verbs as denote by nature, a fact complete in itself. A Verb likr `toknow` has no progressive forms since `know` denotes a fact, ``not something uncompleted, that is, still going on``. Verbs denoting a state or condition, similarly, do not usually employ the progressive form.

The Present Tense (188)

(a) The terminate forms of the present may refer to Immediate Future:

`I (shall) leave within fifteen minutes` etc.

The progressive form can similarly be used for Immediate Future:
`I am just going`.
It can also be used for Immediate Past:
`I am just coming from Bombay`.
The terminate form should not be used in this sense (Immediate Past). A negative sentence with a Terminate Present may denote `unwillingness, refusal` etc.

» `I won`t lift this load`,
`I don`t like to go to the market`,
µ `this horse won`t move`.

The Past Tense (194)

(a) The simple past can be used for Immediate Future:

µ¦, `your proceed, I will follow you`.

(b) conditional sentences, the simple past refers to the future,usually implying some (certain and immediate) consequence:

±, ± `if you go there, you shall be thrashad`,
± µ `we shall get in as soon as the train arrives.`

The simple past, when used as future conditional, may have the rare progerssive form , etc.
, © ± ? `what will happen if he is coming this
eveing ?`,
¤±, ¦±| `I will come to-morrow at ten o`clock; if you are sleeping (asleep) at that hour, you shall be punished [see In fact, is to be regarded as a past participle form of the compound + , and as equivalent to . This is clear from the fact that a present participle when used as an Adjective denotes the progressive aspect with the help of forms like , etc. (241).
It may also be noted that the rare progressive of the simple past (when used as future conditional) is . (322). and See : the Indicative Past has no progressive form - except the rare
conditional [262-d and 322-c]; ].
The Future form of `to be` may be used as a Presumptive (232-c): ± used as a remark or comment upon some statement may express indifference:
- ± `he has a lot of money`, `what of it ?` or `what do I care?`

Present Perfect (207)

The Present Perfect is really a past tense, but the past act that it represents is always related to the present. It cannot refer to an act which is wholly past and gone. Thus, we can say `the boy has come` only if the boy is still here, whenever he may have come. But we cannot say µ ± `the boy ``has come`` yesterday and went to-day` because the boy`s coming can no longer be related to the present: he is gone. Similarly, we can say ¦ `there have been great kings like Ashok in India` because India exists and we can relate its past to its present. We cannot, however, say µ± `Chandragupta ``has made`` Pataliputra his capital`, because neither Chandragupta nor Pataliputra now exists.

It is, therefore, not correct to call this tense `Recent Past` ( ) as has been done by many grammarians. The present perfect has nothing whatever to do with the recentness or remoteness of a past action.

Habitual Past (212)

(a) The Habitual Past represents an action as habitually or regularly done in the past. It is neither ``Past Imperfect`` nor ``Progressive Past`` Nor can it, in modern Hindi, refer to a Particular action of the past, for which the simple past (or past progressive ) must be used. It is not correct to say, for example, . A few verbs, however, represent action as a fact complete in itself See:- The progressive form represents an act as going on, as progresing or continuing. It cannot, therefore, be used with such verbs as denote by nature, a fact complete in itself. A Verb likr `toknow` has no progressive forms since `know` denotes a fact, ``not something uncompleted, that is, still going on``. Verbs denoting a state or condition, similarly, do not usually employ the progressive form. ), which consequently cannot be habitual. It is only in the case of such verbs that Past Habitual represents a particular action.

`he knew`. cannot mean `he used to know`. `knowing a thing` cannot be repeated!

The forms etc. etc. do not, in fact, represent the progressive aspect of form which they are apparently made. The similarity is purely formal. is really the progressive aspect corresponding to ± See:(a) The Indicative Past, as discussed above, invariably refers to a particular act done in the past. It is never used with reference to an act habitually or regularly done in the past, for which the habitual past is used.

The common forms noted above are, obviously, terminate:they represent a particular past action as a whole or as a fact, not as going on. For the progressive, and

(a) The above forms are terminate, not progressive: they do not represent the act as going on in the past. Their use as progressive (``Imperfect`` or ``Continuous``) forms is archaic or dialectic.

(b) The progressive forms are made, as in the present (190) by replacing the by :

These, however, represent the progressive aspect of the simple past rather than of the habitual.

Participles (239)

The Present Participle represents an action as proceeding or progressing. It is progressive by nature, although with and , ot assumes a terminate chararacter. The Present Participle, therefore, has no need of a fresh Progressive form. However, a is sometimes attached to a Present Participle in order to make it a clear progressive (241-b and 262-d).

The progressive of Present Participle is a further attempt at expressing the progressive aspect with perfect clarity, and forms like ± `the running train` and ± `the falling rain` are being used especially in poetry. They are, however, hardly necessary.

The Past Participle of a Transitive Verb is passive by nature. It represents an action as completed, and at the same time qualifies the object. (The past participle of an Intransitive Verb, which has no object, qualifies the subject). There is, thus, no need of a fresh passive forms with ± or (272-b) serrve only to make the passive sense more definite. cna be attached to Intransitive Verbs also, but never ±. The ± in µ ± (Intransitive) is not of passive origin. It is the past participle form of the Subsidiary Verb in the compound Verb µ `go away`.

CHAPTER XXXX

In the Active Voice (with the subject acting) :- A subject is usually in the direct case, when the Verb must agree with it in Number, Gender and Perosn:
, ¦±, ± ±, µµ ±
This is Subjectival Construction. With a Transitive Verb having a past participle form, the subject is in the oblique case with , when the Verb agrees with the object:
µ , ®¦
This is Objectival Construction. But if the object pf a verb with a past participle form has or ¦, the verb is in the masculine singular, third person:
, ®
This is Neutral Construction.

Note- (i) With a Transitive Verb of Incomplete Predication, the object always has .
(ii) A Verb with two objects cannot be in the Neutral Construction. It must, in such cases, agree with the primary object: ¦ ¦
(iii) Pronouns may have - ¦ or - instead of .

A Verb can be in the Objectival or the Neutral Construction only if it has a past participle. Elsewhere, the Verb is always in the subjectival Construction, whether it is Transitive or Intransitive, complete or incomplete:

® ® , ±, ¦

An Intransitive Verb is always in the Subjectival Construction even when it has a past participle.

, , ±

With Verbs denoting ``experience`` etc. (266-270), the subject always has (or- ¦, - in case of Pronouns); and the ``object of experience`` is in the direct case with which the Verb agrees:
» ® ± , , µµ ±
A Verb of this class is always in the Objectival Construction.

In the Passive Voice:-
a. The logical subject (``doer``) , if mentioned, always has ; and the logical object (``that which is acted upon``) is in the direct case, with which the Verb agrees:

, ®

± (logical subject not mentioned). The construction thus, is Objectival.

Note- (i) In the passive voice, the logical object assumes the role of the grammatical subject (``that about which something has been said``).

It cannot, of course, replace the logical subject - `` the doer``.

The logical subject is usually mentioned only if abiliity or inability to do something is implied. Only a Transitive Verb can be in the Passive Voice. If a Verb has two objects, the Verb agrees with the primary object, the secondary object being in the oblique case:
¦ ¦ ±¦.
The construction is Objectival, with the logical subject omitted. With the Verbs , ¶, ± etc., the secondary object has : » , ¶ ± (98-).
With Verbs of incomplete predication in the passive Voice, the object usually has (or-¦, -) and the Verb is always in the third person singular masculine form:
± ±, » ±.
the construction, thus, is Neutral. Neutral construction is met with also in other Verbs, especially if the object is a Pronoun:
±, » ± . With the ``true passive `` (274), the object is always in the direct case, which the Verb agrees. The subject. if mentioned, has : , ±, » ®, ±. The construction is Objectival.
Note - (i) The subject, where mentione, is either ``able`` or ``unable`` to do something, or does something unintentionally as in the last sentence, or as in » ±.
(ii) All ``true passive`` are Intransitive in form, but Transitive in sense. In their active form, they change into Verbs.
, µ (274-b). All passive have eighte the objectival, or the neutral construction. They can never be in the subjectival construction : the Verb never agrees with the logical subject (or, to put in other words, the logical subject, of a passive is never in the direct form).

In the Impersonal Voice (278) the Verb is always in the third person singular masculine form, and the subject if mentioned, has :
µ ¦, » . This is the Neutral Construction.
Note:- (i) Only Intransitive Verbs can be in the Impersonal Voice.
(ii) In the Impersonal Voice, the Verb is always in the neutral construction.

(a) All Verbs having a present or past participle form are affected by the Number, Person and Gender of the subject or of the object.
(b) Othe forms of Verbs are affected by only the number and Person of the subject or of the object.
(c) All Verbs, when they are in the neutral construction, are in the third person singular masculine form Two or More Subjects

(a) If a sentence has two or more subjects, the Verb is in the Plural:
¦ ; µ ±.
(b) The Gender of such a Verb is feminine only if all the subjects are Feminine. If the subjects are living beings, and one of them is Masculine, the Verb is also masculine:
µ; , ; ® .
(c) If all the subjects are inanimate things and singular, the Verb again agrees with the masculine:
¦ ® ; ® .
(d) Elsewhere, the Verb agrees with the nearest Subject:
® ; ± ®

It is usual to `sum up` the two or more subjects by the words (both) and (all) placed after the subjects, in which case the Verb is Masculine (unless, of course, all the subjects are Feminine) :
; µµ, , µ; ; , µ ±

If the subjects are itwo or more Pronouns in different persons, the `order of Preference` for the Verb is first-second-third:
(or ) µ± (first person plural); , µ± (first person plural); (second person plural).
Gendedr follows the same rules as in the case of Nouns.
The above rules hold good also when the Verb agrees with the object (i.e. in the objectival construction):
¦ ± ¦ ®; µ ¦ ± µ
The Verb agrees with the subject (in the direct case) even if there is a predicative word referring to it, which has another Gender.
® ±;

CHAPTER XXXXI

The normal order of words in a senternce is as follows:- I ntransitive Verbs
(i) Subject Verb

(ii) Subject Predicative word Verb
µ Transitive Verbs-
(i) Subject Object Verb
®
(ii) Subject Object Predicative word Verb referring to the Object
Transitive Verbs with two objects
Subject Secondary object Primary object Verb

¦ ¦

Adjectives are placed immediately before the Noun which they qualify (except, of course, when they are used as Predicative words) : ¶ ; µ ¦ But µ
Nouns having and Pronouns having - are adjectival and are placed immediately befoer the related Noun, or before its Adjective, if there is one:
¶ : () But (Predicative). Adverbs are usually placed before the Verb:
,
® Nouns having and denoting means, instrument etc., or separation precede the object.
µ ,
Nouns having or are usually placed before the Verb (or before a predicative word, if any):
,
,
¦ . , and are generally placed immediately before the Verb:
,
¦,
µµ ®.
But sometimes otherwise as well: ¶ ; . The particles , , etc. are placed after the word which they emphasize:

A word shifted from its normal position qcquires emphasis:

The interrogative © is usually placed at the beginning of the sentence.

Rhetorically, or for the sake of emphasis, © may be placed immediately after the subject or at the end of the sentence:

APPENDIX I

Prefixes are subsidiary words (prepositions and particles) which are, as a rule, not used independently, but modify the meaning of a word (usually Noun or an Adjective), when attached to it in the beginning. Thus-

± = `virtue`, but ± = `fault defect`,
= `giving`, but = `taking`,
= `famous`, but = `very famous`,
= `value or price, but = `priceless`,
= `day` but = `every day, daily`.

Nouns, Adjectives other words to which a perfix has thus been attached are included among Compounds
(Appendix III). They are discussed here for the sake of convenience.

Most of the perfixes in use in Hindi are Tatsama, a few are Tadbhave, while others have been borrowed form Aeabic or persain.

The more important perfixes and compounds formed with their help are listed below. The compounds marked as A are Adverbial (App III, 13) and those marked as P are Possessive (App III, 15).

Tatsama Prefixes
1. denotes `negation` or `lack`:
`justice`, `injustice`
`knowledge`, `non-violence`, `non-injury`,
`spot, blame`, `spotless` (P).

This is repleced by when attached to a word beginning with a vowel:
µ `pr oper`, µ `improper`,
¦ `one`, `many`,
`beginning`, `without beginning`, (P)

(2) = `very`, `exceedingly`:
`very hard` `very delicate`,
`exceedingly weak`, ( +) `very
generous`.

(4) = `following`, `after`, `according to`, `similar to`:
± `following`, `imitation`,
(± `going`), ( `doing`),
`similar, worthy of` (P), `translation`,
( form`) ( `speaking`).

(5) = `contrary`, `lacking`, `away`:
`disgrace, insult`, `formless` (P);
`bad omen`, `taking away`, carryinmg off`.

(6) = `towards`, `against`, `superior`, `special`:
`address`; `opinion`
`expedition`; `custody`.

(7) = `contrary`, `lacking,» `inferior`:
± `defect, fault`; µ `opinion`
`devaluation`, (µ `conscious`).

(8) = `until`, `contrary`:
`for life` (A), `life-long,» `until death` (A);
`taking`; ± `coming`
( `giving`), (± `going`).

(9) , = `upwards`, `superior`:
`rise, progress`.
`awakening, exhortation`;
± `rising, shooting forth, origin`;
`opening, inauguration`;
`ill-behaved, rude` (P).

(10) = `near`, `infeior`, `vice -`, `sub--`:
`surname, nickname`; ± `suburb`;
`sub-rule`; `vice-president`;
`deputy minister`.

(11) , = `evil`, `diffcult`:
± `evil qualities`; `villain`;
( person)
`bad situation`; `difficult to obtain` (P).
± `difficult to traverse, or approach` (P).

(12) , = `away`, `out`, `without`:
`meaningless, useless` (P); `innocent` (P)
`fearless` `lonely` (place);
`export`; `spiritless` (P);
µ `unmoving, fixed` `desireless (P);
(µ `moving`)

(13) = `around`, `fully`, `well`:
`entourage, sevants`; `circumambulation`;
`full satisfaction`; © `quite ripe`;
`addition, enlargement`.

(14) = `excess`, `very`, `forward`:
`very strong` (P); `great effort`;
® `well-known`; `process`;
`projection`; ± `progress`.

(15) = `against`, `opposite`, `every`:
`echo`; `reflection`;
`defendant`; `everyday` (A);
( `plaintiff)
`every moment` (A)

(16) = `lacking`, `away`, `special`, `various`, `opposite`:
`lonely (place)» (P); `forgetting,
forgetfulness`;
`spotless, clean` (P); `science`;
` victory`; ± `division,
distribution`:
` foreign land`; `sale`
( ` country`) ( `purchase`)

(17) = `with`, `together with`, `altogether`, `good`:
`agreement`; `conference`;
`honour, homage`; `protection`;
`constitution`; `amendment, correction`.

(18) = `good`, `easily`:
`good work, merit`; `well-educated`;
`easy to do` (P); `easy to obtain` (P);
± `easy of access` (P).

(19) , : = `inter-`:
`international` : `inter-provincial`;
`intercaste`.

(20) = `bad`, `evil`:
`bad deed, evil act`; `ugly` (P):
µ `conspiracy`; `bad day, adversity`.

(21) = `agaom`, `re-`:

`remarriage` `rebirth`;
`renaissance`.

(22) = `pre-`:
± `pre-historic`; © `foreword`;
± `pre-Vedic`; [ `say` (noun)]

(23) = `with`, `together with`, `same`:
`fruitful, successful` (P);
`living, full of life` (P);
`of the same caste or community or kind` (P).

(24) = `with` together with`, `same`:
± `chorus`; `co-operation`;
`assistant`, `class-fellow`.
`co-operative`

4.Tadhava Prefixes

(1) , = `without`, `lacking`:
, `uneducated` (P); , `ignorant`
`definite; final,irrevocable` (P); (P);
`without knowing, unwittingly` (A);
± `innumerable` (P); `invaluable` (P).

(2) = `bad`, `evil`:
µ `bad ways; misconduct`; `ugly` (P);
( `form, shape`).

(3) = `bad`, `lacking`:
`bad time, famine`;
`weak, lean, without strength` (P).

(4) = `lacking`, `without`:
`useless` (P); `fearless` (P);
`unarmed` (P).

(5) = `without`, `un........`:
- `unmarried` (P): - without
knowing` (archaic) (A).

(6) = `ful`, `as much as possible`:
`bellyful, to heart`s content` (A);
`as far as one can` ( `to be able to`) (A);
`plentiful`.

is really the Absolutive form of (243) and means `filing, so as to fill`. In the above compounds, it has, however, been used as a prefix (cf 294-e and 295).

Arabic and Persian Prefixes
(1) ± = `without`, `against`, `foreign`;
± `absent`; ± `unofficial`;
± `illegal`.

(2) = `without`:
`unliked; unacceptable`; ® `displeased, angry`:
`disallowed , rejected`. `unworthy`.

(3) = `per`:
`per head` (A); `per rupee` (A);
`per seer` (A). `per cent` (A).

(4) = `without`:
`careless` (P); `speechless; `incom parable` (P);
( `reply`)
`untraceable, missing` (P);
`incurable` (P).

(5) = without`:
`dishonest` (P); `lifeless` (P);
µ `helpless` (P); `semse;ess` (P);
`merciless`)P); ® `fearlessly` (A).

(6) = `every`:
`every day` (A); `every year` (A);
¦ `every one`; `each time` (A).

SUFFIXES

6. Suffixes are elements attached to a root, a Pronoun, an Adjectives etc. for forming related words. Some suffixes attached to a root make Nouns or Adjectives, e.g.

`fight` from `to fight`;
± `singer` from ± `to sing`.

Other suffixes attached to Nouns or Adjectives etc. form further Nouns or Adjectives:

± `a Bengali` from ± `Bengal`;
`badness` from `bad`;
`thirsty` from `thirst`.

7. There are thus two kinds of suffixes :

(1) those attached to a root and forming Verbal Nouns and Adjectives and

(2) those attached to a Noun or Adjective and forming Secondary Nouns or Adjectives. The first variety of suffixe, and the words formed by them are called , Primary Derivatives.

The second variety of suffixes is called or Secondary Suffixes and the words formed by them are called or Secondary Derivatives;

The main Primary Suffixes of Hindi are as follows: The root itself is occasionally used as an Abstract Noun:

`beating` from `to beat`;
`race, running` from `to run`;
`plunder` from `to rob, to plunder`;
® `play, sport` from ® `to play`.

Sometimes the vowel of the roots is lengthened or modified:

µ `gait or motion` from µ `to move`;
`flood, increase` from `to grow`;
`harmony, friendship from `to meet`.

-© = `doing something habitually or excessively`, forms Adjectives:
© `forgetful` from `to forget`;
© `drunkard` from `to drink`;
© `habitually jumping` from `to jump`;
© `wanderer` from `to wander`.
Long vowel of a root is regularly shortened before - ©.

- forms abstract, or agent, or action, or instrumental Nouns (Masc.) as well as past participles see :- (a) The Past Participle is formed by appending to the root:

(b) However, the root ending in ¤ and shorten their vowels before the - and, in the case of- roots, a- is inserted between the root and the-. Thus-

(c) - is similarly inserted in case of the roots ending in - -¦ or - . Thus -

(d) The following are exceptional forms:-

»± `quarrel` from »± `to quarrel`;
¶ `print` from ¶ `to print`;
`siege` from `to surround`;
`shock` from `to shake`;
`fair` from `to meet`;
» `swing` (Noun) from » `to swing`;
±- `pick-pocket` from `to cut`;
- `speaking sweetly` from `to speak`.
Note the vowel-changes in and ±-.
forms Abstract Nouns (Fem.) :
`fight` from `to quarrel, to fight`;
`study` from `to study, to learn`;
µ `ascent` from µ `to ascend, to climb`;
`earning` from `to earn`.

Some Nouns formed with denote `cost` or `charges` for the work done:
`washing chjarges` from `to get washed`;
® `writing changes, from ® `to write`.
clerkage`-¤ = `able`, `fit for`, `doing`, forms Adjectives:
¤ `saleable` from `to sell` (intrans.);
¤ `durable` from `to last`;
±¤ `likely to from ± `to fall`; collapse or fall`
¤ `one who earns from `to earn`; (much)»
®¤ `voracious` from ® `to eat`. -, -, - = `doing habitually, efficiently`, form Adjectives:
`quarrelsome` from `to quarrel`;
`a skilful swimmer` from `to swim`;
, `flying` from `to fly`.

These Adjectives do not modify in the Feminine. - forms Abstract Nouns (Masc.) :
µ `ascent` from µ `to ascend`;
`flow` from `to flow`;
`bend, turn` from `to turn`;
µ `protection` from µ `to escape, to avoid`. - forms Abstract Nouns (Masc. or Fem.):
`flight` from `to fly`;
`growth, rise` from `to arise`;
`comparison` from `to meet, to
tally`;
± `tax` from ± `to be levied`. - forms Abstrac Nouns (Fem.):
® `writing` form ® `to write`;
`make, fabrication` form `to make`;
`obstruction` form `to stop`;
`decortaion` form `todecorato`;
- froms Abstract Nouns (Masc): `call` from `to call`;
`deceptnon` from `to farget
(`to cheat`);
`dress` from `to put on`. - forms Abstract Nouns (Fem.) :
µ `cry` from µ `to cry`;
`perturbation` from `to worry; to
`consternation` feel anxious`. - `tending to, prove to`, `-ly` forms Adjectives:
`rotten, rotting from `to rot`;
`half-dead, sickly` from `to die`;
`obnstinate` from `to be obstinate,
to stick`. - forms Abstract Nouns (Feminine):
`laughter, joke` from `to laugh`;
`speech, dialect` from `to speak`;
`rebuke` from `to rebuke`. -¦ forms Abstract or Agent Nouns (Adjectives):
`earning` from `to earn`;
`robber` from `to rob`;
`lodging, roost` from `to dwell`. - forms Abstract Nouns (Feminine):
µ `saving` from µ `to escape, be saved`;
® `consumption, sale` from ® `to sell` (intrans). - forms Abstract Nouns (Feminine):
`growth, increase` from `to grow`;
± `counting` from ± `to count`;
`filling, recruitment` from `to fill`. - forms Abstract Nouns (Masc. or Fem.):
µ `conduct` from µ `to move`;
`smile` from `to smile`. - forms Infinitives (see section III, chapter X): - .

The important Secondary Suffixes of Hindi are as follows:-
1- forms Adjectives denoting `having`:
® `hungry` from ® `hunger`;
`thirsty` from `thirst`;
`dirty` from `dirt`

(2)- forms Abstract and other Nouns (Fem.) from Adjectives:
µ¶ `goodness` from µ¶ `good`;
`badness, evil` from `bad`;
`sweetmeat` from `seweet`.

- forms Abstract Nouns (Feminine) from Adjectives:
`sweetness` from `sweet`;
® `sourness` from ® `sour`. - forms Abstract Nouns (Feminine) from Adjectives:
`bitterness` from `bitter`;
µ `smoothness` from µ `smooth`. - forms Adjectives from Nouns and denotes `coming from`, `belonging to`:
`of Calcutta` from `Calcutta`;
`belonging to Kanauj` from `Kanauj`;
`grown in Bombay` from `Bombay`.
- also forms diminutives (Feminine):
® `a small cot` from ® `cot`;
`young daughter` from `daughter`;
`casket` from `box`. - forms Adjectives from Nouns, and denotes `belonging to`, having`, `coming from`:
± `rosy` from ± `rose`;
± `Bengali` from ± `Bengal`;
`countrymade` from `country`;
¤ `wollen` from ¤ `wool`;
± `wild` from ± `forest`.
- also forms Diminutives (Feminine):
`hill` from `mountain`;
`rope` from `rope`;
`small basket` from `basket`.
- further forms Abstract Nouns (Feminine) from Nouns or Adjectives:
µ `theft` from µ thief
® `agriculture` from ® field`;
`wisdom` from `wise`;
± `poverty` from ± `poor`. forms Adjectives from Nouns and denotes `containing`, `full of`;
`juicy` from `juice`;
`poisonous` from `poison`;
`watery` from `water` (with vowel-shortening).
-¤ forms Adjectives from Nouns and denotes `belonging to`, `tending to`, etc.:
`of the market`, from `market`;
`common`, `cheap`
`homely`, `private` from `home, house`;
`sloping` from `slope`;
`voracious` from `belly, stomach`.
(9) -¦ denotes `belonging to`, `dealing in` and forms Nouns and Adjectives from Nouns:
(Fem. ) from `maternal uncle`;
µµ (Fem. µµ) from µµ `uncle`;
(Fem. ) from `maternal aunt` etc.

These words denote `sons (or daughters) of maternal uncle` etc.
`snake-charmer` from `snake`;
µ `painter` from µ `picture, painting`.
(10) - forms Abstract Nouns (Masculine) form Adjectives or Nouns:
`blackness` from `black`;
± `madness` from ± `mad`;
`boyishness` from `boy`.

(11) similarly makes Abstract Nouns (Masculine) from Nouns or Adjectives which shorten their first vowels:
(, `fatness` from `fat`;
`old age` from `old`;
`widowhood` from `widow`.
(12) See:- `single, not double or multiple, lean`, `two-fold, stout`, and , `treble, three-fold`, µ `quadruple, four-fold`, `1 1/4 times as much` and ` one half as much`, are special forms.

The following Persian suffixes may also be noted:
1- forms Abstract Nouns (Feminine) From Adjectives:
® `pleasure` from ® `happy, pleased`;
`friendship` from `friend`;
`enmity` from `enemy`.
2-± or ± makes Nouns, and denotes `dealing in`:
± `merchant` from `merchandise`;
± `magician` from `magic`;
±± `sinner` from ± `sin (with vowel-
shorrtening);
± `helper` from `help`.
3- makes Adjectives from Nouns :
`annual` from `year`;
`daily` from `day`;
`manly, (as) male` from `male`;
`royal` from `king`. - forms Adjectives from Nouns and denotes `full of, arousing`:
`touching, piteous` from `pin, pity`;
® `frightful` from ® `fear, fright`;
® `dangerous` from ® `danger`. - forms Adjectives from Nouns and dentoes `having`:
± `coloured` from ± `colour`;
`fond` from `liking, hobby`;
`salty` from `salt`. - forms Adjectives from Nouns and denotes `having`;
`wealthy` from `wealth`;
© `wise` from © `wisdom`;
`useful, advantageous` from `advantage`.
(7) similarly forms Adjectives from Nouns and denotes `having`:
`zamindar, landlord` from `land`;
`wealthy` from `property`;
`shopkeeper` from `shop`

APPENDIX II

GENDER FORMS

GENDER (77)

Gender in Hindi is determined by usage, not by any hard and fast rules. The following points may be noted for guidance:

Nouns denoting male beings are Masculine and those denoting fe,a;e neomgs are Fe,omome. (They have the `Natural Gender`). However, the Masculine Nouns µµ (plural) `children, and ± `people` (always plural) may refer to both male and female persons. µµ in the singular may refer to a female child, although the feminine form µµ does exist. Nouns denoting certain species of animals, birds, insects etc. are either only Masculine or only Feminine. Masculine:-

For denoting specifically the female species, the word `female` is prefixed to these Nouns, the gender remaining the same:

Feminine:-

For denoting the male, the word `male` is prefixed to these - the gender remaining Feminine. Collective Nouns are treated as names of `things` even if they refer to a collection of human beings, and their Gender depends upon usage. Thus, `group`, » `multitude`, or `family`, `troop` etc. are Masculine; while `crowd`, `army`, `meeting or assembly`, `the ipeople, (subjects)» etc. are Feminine.

Most of the Tadbhava Nouns ending in -, -, -, -, and - are Masculine:

Most of the Nouns ending in - , -, -, - are Feminine:

etc. But `ghee`, `curd`, `water`, `pearl` `mind, heart, mental or physical condition` are Masculine.

Genders of Tatsama Nouns are usually retained, the Sanskrit Neuter gender being treated as Masculine.

In many cases, however, genders of Tatsama words have been altered by Hindi usage under the influence of their forms, or on the analogy of a Hindi synonym. Thus `soul` () and `greatness` () are Masculine in Sanskrit, but Feminine in Hindi, presumably because of the final of these words- which is frequently met with in Tatsama Feminine Nouns (like `daughter, ` `mercy`, `lustre`, `she-goat` etc). © `an individual, a person`, is Feminine in Sanskrit, but Masculine in Hindi because `person` is also denoted by and which are Masculine. ± `fire` is Masculine in Sanskrit, but Feminine in Hindi, because of the final - [cf. (f) above]. `book`, similarly, is Neuter in Sanskrit, but Feminine in Hindi because its synonym (derived from Sanskrit Fem). is Feminine.

Formation of Feminine Nouns

(a) Words ending in the inherent - or in - form their Feminine by replacing -or in - -by -: